Biology Notes class 9th
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CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION OF BIOLOGY
Q. Name of branches of biology also describes the relationship of biology with other branches of science?
Biology (Bios=life + logos=Discourse)
It is the branch of science which deals with the study of living things both animals and plants is called biology the word of biology is combination of two Greek words (Bios meaning life andlogos meaning thought, discourse, reasoning or study.
The Main Branches of Biology
01. ZOOLOGY (Zoo = Animal +logos =discourse)
It is branch of biology that deals with the study of animal's kingdom is called zoology. Zoology is the study of animals, their structure, function and way of life. The word of zoology is combination of two words Zoo meaning Animal and logos meaning discourse.
02. BOTANY (Botan=meaning Green or plants)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of plants kingdom is called Botany by this definition plants include: algae, fungi, mosses, conifers and flowering plants. The word of Botany is taken from Botan meaning green or plants.
03. Micro Biology (Micro=small + Bio=living things+ logos=discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of very small living things we can see with the microscope, is called Microbiology. The word of micro biology is combination of three words Micro meaning very small Bio meaning living things and logos meaning discourse. For exampleamoeba, , euglena, etc.
04. Morphology (Morph=form+ logos=discourse)
The study of form and external structure of living organisms is called Morphology; the word of Morphology is combination of two Greek words Morph meaning form and logos meaning discourse. Plant morphology includes the study of the different shapes of leaves, for example, and root systems, Animal morphology studies the shapes of whole animals, or parts, including internal organs (e.g. skin morphology)
05. Anatomy (Ana= up + tomy =to cut)
It is the branch of morphology or biology which deals with the study of internal structure and it is a function of organ living things is called Anatomy. The word of anatomy is combination of two words Ana – up and tomy – meaning to cut.
06. Histology (Histoses-tissues + logos-discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of animal and plants tissues, structure, composition, and function of tissue in the human body with the aid of the microscope. Histology, sometimes called microscopic anatomy is very important in the field of biology
07. CYTOLOGY (Cytos-call, hollow+ logos-discourse)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of cells in terms of structure and functions of cells or call division and their organelles is called Cell Biology. The word of cytology is combination of two Greek words Cytos – hollow or cavity and logos meaning discourse.
08. Physiology (Phyios-Nature + logos- discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of different functions mechanical, physical, and biochemical performed by different parts of living organism is called Physiology. The word of physiology is combination of Greek words phyios - meaning Nature and logos- meaning discourse.
09. Ecology (Eco- house +logos – discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of surrounding environment and relationships between living being and non living being, is called Ecology .The word of ecology is combination of two Greek words Eco – house and logos meaning discourse.
10. Taxonomy (Taxo=to classify+ nomos=law)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of classification of Living things is called taxonomy. Living organisms are classified into groups and subgroups based on similarities and differences. This is called classification, is that branch of biology in which organisms are classified and given scientific names. The word of taxonomy is combination of two Greek words Taxo– classification and nomos -meaning law.
11. Embryology (Embero=zygote + logos= discourse)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of embryo and their development or fertilizing egg (zygote) is called embryology.The stage between zygote and newly hatched or born baby is called embryo.
12. Genetics (Genno= to be born, give birth)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of methods and principles of biological inheritance of characters from parents to their offspring, is called Genetics. The word of Genetics is taken from one Greek word Genno meaning to be born, to be birth.
13. Paleontology (paleo= Ancient+ onto =being, existing)
It is branch of biology which deals with the study of fossils is called paleontology, for example dinosaurs, or they could study ancient mammals, fish, or birds.
14. Biochemistry
The study of metabolic reactions taking place in living organisms is called Biochemistry. These reactions may be constructive or destructive. The assimilation of food is a constructive process and respiration is a destructive process.
15. Biotechnology
It is very modern and recent branch of biology it deals with the study of the (1) use of data and techniques of engineering and (2) technology for the study and solution of problems related with living organism especially of human beings.
16. Bio- physics
The study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences The study of various biological phenomena according to principles of physics is called biophysics. For example, movement of muscles and bones based on principles of physics
17. Bio- chemistry
The study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level The study of different biochemical like carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids etc found in cells of living organisms and hundreds of the underlying chemical reactions in cells of organisms are called biochemistry.
18. Bio-metry
The data obtained from observations and experiments on living organism is analyzed by various statistical methods called Biometry.
19. Bio- Geography
The study of plants and animals and the basis of geographical distribution are called Biogeography.
20. Bio-Economics
The study of living organisms from economic point of view is called Bio-Economics. It includes the study of cost effectiveness and viability of biological projects from commercial point of view.
QURANIC TEACHING ABOUT ANIMAL AND PTANTS
The holy Quran throws adequate light on the origin of life. The most important fact in the teachings of Quran is that Allah is the ultimate creator of everything. Almighty Allah has conveyed a great knowledge about animals and plants through our holy book. (Sura anbiyah 21 Ayah 30) “It says about the origin of life that we made from water every living things will they not then believe.”
An Egyptian Mufassir Allama Abdullah Yousuf Ali has symbolized water with the protoplasm. Thus explains that the protoplasm is the basis of all living things and vital power of protoplasm seems to depend on the constant presence of water. Allah has also indicated the usefulness of some of the plants and animals. To the human welfare, the following ayah can be quoted for reference. (Sura Nahal 16 Ayahs 66) : “And verily in cattle too will ye find an instructive sign. From what is within their bodies, between excretions and blood; we produce, for drink, milk, pure and agreeable, to those who drink it.”
Above passage refers to the wonderful act of production of plants and interaction of living and dead.
(Sura Anam Ayah 95) “It is Allah who splits the seed and the fruit stone. He brings forth the living from the dead. And the dead from the living such is Allah how then can you turn away from him.”
The Quran was revealed 1400 years ago to the last Prophet of God, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a guidance for all humanity Holy Quran explained some biological facts, which were beyond the knowledge of human being at that time scientists of today have tried to reveal these facts and have found the truth in all the indications learned from the holy Quran.
BIOLOGICAL METHOD
A biological method is a scientific approach used to resolve a biological problem related to or produced by a living organism in order to resolve a specific biological problem a biological method is adopted which consists of following steps.
1. Observation
Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting, specific biological problem, observations are made to collect relevant information. For example, take the case of Malaria. Malaria is the greatest killer disease of man for centuries. Malaria was one among many other diseases for which a cure was needed. In 1878, A French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of Malaria patient under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later called Plasmodium.
2. Hypothesis:
To solve a scientific problem, one or more possible propositions are made based on the observations. Such a proposition is called a Hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested by scientific method. For example observation was made that plasmodium is present in the blood of malaria patients. So a question was raised is plasmodium the cause of malaria? It would be a good guess to say ‘yes’ but it is only a guess which can presented as a hypothesis that: Plasmodium is the cause of malaria?
3. Deduction:
The logical conclusion drawn from a hypothesis is called deduction. Testing one deduction and finding it correct does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is correct and scientific problem is solved. Actually, if more deductions are found to be correct; the hypothesis will be close to solution of the problem for example to test the above hypothesis the following deduction were made.
“If plasmodium is the cause of malaria then the entire patient suffering from malaria should have plasmodium in their blood while healthy people should not have”
4. Experiment:
Following groups are designed to perform experiments:
(a) Experimental Group
It is the group of those people who are affected in some way and we do not know the real cause e.g. a group of malarial patients.
(b) Control Group
It is the group of unaffected people e.g. persons group of healthy persons. By keeping both of these groups under similar conditions, the difference between them is determined. To know the real cause of malaria, the experts examined the blood of about 100 malarial patients (experimental group). On the other hand, the experts examined the blood of about 100 healthy persons (control group).
5. Result:
Experiment it was found that all the malarial patients had plasmodium in their blood where as the blood of healthy persons were free from plasmodium. These results verified the dedication and finally the hypothesis i.e. “Plasmodium is the cause of malaria”
6. Theory:
A theory is a set of scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved e.g. theory of evolution. Thus, a biologist studies a problem in a sequential manner through observation, question, hypothesis, deduction, testing or experimentation. A caution attitude expressed in the form of criticism and further tests are performed until a satisfactory answer is obtained.
------------------------MUSLIM BIOLOGISTS-----------
01. JABIR-BIN-HAYAN (722- 817 A.D)
Introduction
Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, was the born in 722 A.D, he was the son of the druggist (Attar). He practiced medicine and was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizir during the Abbssid Caliphate of Haroon al-Rashid. He shared some of the effects of the downfall of the Barmakis and was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he died in 817 A.D
Research
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, the alchemist Geber of the middle Ages, is generally known as The Father of Chemistry) Jabber bin Hayan was greatest of all the Muslim scientists and he was wrote books (Al-Nabatat) on plants and (Al-Haywan) on animal respectively.
02. Abul-QASIM AL-ZAHRAVI (936-1004 A.D)
Introduction:
Al-Zahravi was born in 936 A.D in the city of Al-Zahra, six miles northwest of Cordoba, and he was died in 1004 A.D.
Research :
He is the renowned Hakim and first surgeon of the Islamic world, considered a pioneer of modern surgery. Al-Zahravi wrote a medical encyclopedia spanning 30 volumes which included sections on surgery, medicine, orthopedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology, nutrition etc. This book was known as Al-Tasrif. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical, needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, bone saw and plaster. Moreover, zahravi is famous for the removal of the urinary bladder stone.
03. ZIAUDDIN –IBN-BAITIR (13TH century A.D)
Introduction:
Ahu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar was born in the Spanish city of Malaya (Malaga) towards the end of the 13th century. He was one of the greatest scientists of Muslim Spain and was the greatest botanist and pharmacist of the middle Ages.
Research :
Ibn-baiter specialized in the study of plants he traveled to several countries observed and studied many species of plants. He published the Kitab-al-Jami-fi-al-Adwiya-al-Mufrada. Which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. It contains details on at least 1,400 different plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. His work was also influential in Europe after it was translated into Latin in 1758.
04. AL-FARABI ------- (870-950 A.D)
introduction:
Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad Farabi was born in 870 A.D and he was died in 950 A.D.
Research :
He is renowned Hakim and surgeon of the Islamic world. Considered a pioneer of modern surgery. He wrote the two very well known books i.e. “kitab-i-Nabatat” and “kitab-ul-Haywanat”.
05. BU-ALI SINA: (980 A.D)
Introduction :
Abu Ali Al-Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina was born in the village of Afshana near Bukhara in 980 A.D which today is located in the far south of Russia.
Research:
He was greatest of all the Muslim scientists and is considered to be one of the founders of medicine he is acknowledged as the greatest expert of his time in medicines in both the East and West. Aside from medicines, he was expert in mathematics, astronomy, physics and Paleontology. He wrote the very well known books “Al-Qanoon” and “il Tib Al-Shifa”
06. IBU-AL HAITHAM (965-1039 A.D)
Introduction:
Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham was born in 965 A.D in in Basrah (present Iraq) and he was died in1039 A.D
Research:
Haitham is one of the most outstanding figures of Muslim history being an optician of great merit and stature some 200 scientific works said to have been written by him on diverse subjects. He was the first one to correct the Greek conception of vision locating Retina as the seat of vision his books”Kitabul-Manazir and Mizanul-Hikma were translated into Latin and other languages.
07. ALI BIN ISA:
Introduction
bu ali Yahya ibn Isa Ibn Jazla was an 11th-century physician of Baghdad.
Research :
He was a well-known eye-specialist of his time. Moreover, worked on structure and the diseases of the eye He wrote three volume on a subject in which he described 130 diseases of the eye. He has also given names of foods helpful in the cure of eye diseases.
08. ABDUL MALIK-ASMAI:
Introduction:
Abdul Malik Ibn Quraib Al-Asmai was born in Basrah (present Iraq) in 741A.D. He was a pious Arab and a good student of Arabic poetry. Al-Asmai died in 828 A.D.
Research:
Al-Asmai is considered as the first Muslim scientist who contributed to Zoology, Botany and Animal Husbandry. He wrote many books on animals and plants.
1. Al-kheil------------- is about Horse
2. Al-inbil------------- is about camels
3. As-sha--------------- is about sheep
4. Al-wahoosh---------- is about wild animal
5. Khalaqul-insan ------ is about human body
09. ALI-BIN-Rabban-TUBRI:
Introduction:
Al-Tabari was born in 775 A.D. he was the teacher of the distinguished physician Zakariya al-Razihe was also an accomplished Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer,- and He was died in870 A.D
Research:
Al-Tabari is most famous for his world-renowned medical treatise 'Firdous al-Hikmat.' Besides the medical science, seven-volume treatise Firdous al-Hikmat is the first Medical encyclopedia that incorporates several branches of medical science. This work was translated and published for the first time in the twentieth century. Prior to this publication, only five of his original manuscripts were found in libraries of the West. Dr. M.Z. Siddiqui has recently edited all volumes of Firdous al-Hikmat. .
10. IBN-AL NAFEES (13th century A.D)
He described the process of blood circulation in human body. Ibn al-Nafis, considered a pioneer of circulatory physiology, was the first to describe pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered one of the greatest physiologists in history.
11. ABU-USMAN-ALJAHIZ:
Abu Usman Amr Ibn Bakr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri al-Jahiz was born in Basra in 776 A.D. He studied in Basra) His most famous book 'Kitab al-Hayawan' (Book of Animals) is an encyclopedia of seven large volumes. This described characteristics of 350 species of animals especially about life of ants.
OTHER BIOLOGIST
01. Aristotle:
Greek philosopher educated at Athens one of the greatest thinkers and scientific investigator wrote more books on logic, metaphysics, physics, astronomy and meteorology, biology, politics etc. He was the first philosopher who divided the branches of philosophy into ethics.
02. Charles Darwin:
As a child Darwin was gentle, meditative and accurately observant of surrounding he loved to collect and to study all sorts of pebbles, shells, coins, birds, eggs and insects. Investigated theory of evolution which set forth in his “origin of species” in 1859
03. William Harvey English anatomist and physiologist discoverer of the theory of circulation of blood this famous theory he explained in his essays on the motion of the heart and blood described the blood circulation in human body.
04. Edward jenner:
Eminent English physician discovered vaccination a measure for guarding against smallpox he based his work on the country belief that infection with cowpox prevented contraction of smallpox and knowing that every country saying had truth in it, he worked for twenty years and established his principle of vaccination.
05. Louis Pasteur:
French chemist professor of chemistry at the University of Paris 1867 to 1888 discovered the causes of fermentation of alcohol and milk by his experiments he revealed a new world of bacteria put medical science on the path of finding the causes of many diseases and facilitated mothers of prevention made researches on the affections of anthrax, chicken cholera, diphtheria and hydrophobia.
06. Galileo
Was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and flautist who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution, His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations,
07. Watson and Crick
In 1962 James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in medicine or physiology for their determination in 1953 of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The molecule that is the basis for heredity, DNA, contains the patterns for constructing proteins in the body, including the various enzymes.
08. Robert Hook
Robert Hook was the English scientist and inventor who wrote the 1665 book “Micrographia”, in which he coined the term "cell" for a basic biological structure he described his microscopic observations of plant tissues and coined the term cell.
09. Linnaean
The particular classification (taxonomy) of Linnaeus, as set forth in his System (1735) and subsequent works, in the taxonomy of Linnaeus there are three kingdoms, divided into classes, and they, in turn, into orders, genera and species additional rank lower than species
10. Joseph Lister (J. Lister)
Were a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to reduced post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients
11. Gregor Johann Mendel
Mendel an Augustinian priest and scientist, who gained posthumous fame as the figurehead of the new science of genetics for his study of the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants, Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows particular laws, which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. The independent rediscovery of these laws formed the foundation of the modern science of genetics
CONCEPTS OF ABIOGENESIS AND BIOGENESIS:
In ancient times, there were two views about the origin of life:
A-Bio-Genesis:
The word of A-biogenesis is composed of three Greek words.
A= without + Bio=Life + Genesis = Generation
The Aristotle presented this famous theory of life.
‘According to this theory that living organisms (both plants and animals) are suddenly developed from clay or non-living organisms
Supplement:
This based on such observations as growth of fungus on pieces of bread and the appearance of maggots on dead bodies of animals. Aristotle believed that fishes, frogs and aquatic insects spontaneously developed mud and dust of marine water and Scorpion is produced or developed by cattle’s dung the ancients in the Aristotle, and for centuries later, had no especial question in regard to the matter and took it for granted that living things did come from animate matter. Virgil tells us of bees coming from the flesh of bullocks
Bio- Genesis:
The word of Biogenesis is composed of two Greek words.
Bio= Life + Genesis= Generation.
‘According to this theory that living organisms (both plants and animals) are not suddenly develop from clay or non-living organisms, but living–being can develop from living being
Supplement:
The idea of production of living from the non-living was experimentally analyzed. Italian scientists named Redi have presented this famous theory of life. Through several experiments, he showed that all living organisms arise from their parents. For example: a spider lays eggs, which develop into spiders, a mom and dad toads gets together and make a baby toad.
REDI’S EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT-NO. 01
According this experiment some dead snakes and fishes were placed in a box. After three days maggots appeared in their bodies .after eighteen days these maggots transformed into pupa some of these pupa were then transferred to separated glass containers covered with a sheet paper. After eight days, a fly emerged from each pupa and all flies were similar to those, which visited the body of the dead snakes and fishes. The flies had laid eggs on the dead snakes these eggs gave rise to maggots, which formed pupa and ultimately flies emerged from them.
EXPERIMENT-NO. 02
According the experiment Redi’s took eight bottles he put dead snakes and fishes in others bottle he kept four bottles open and four bottles covered, After a few days maggots appeared in the open bottles only on any maggots appeared in the bottles kept covered. That if the files prevented from entering the bottles the maggots did not appear.
EXPERIMENT-NO. 03
According the experiment some pieces of meat were put in bottle whose mouth was covered with gauze. Thus, air could enter the bottle while files remained out. Again, no maggots appeared on the piece of meat even after many days in spite of the fact that entry of air was possible. These experiment proved living beings rise, born or develop only living beings. Thus, the concept of biogenesis is correct and that of A-biogenesis is wrong.
NEEDHAM’S EXPERIMENT
In 1748 famous scientist Needham, boiled meet in water poured this gravy in bottle and closed their mouth with cork. After a few days many micro-organisms were produced in these covered bottle this once again excited the believers of A- biogenesis. I.e. life from non-living things
PASTURE’S EXPERIMENT
In 1864, pasture preformed his experiment in front of the commission formed of noted biologists to resolve this issue. He took flasks which had long curved ‘S’ shaped necks he added fermentable infusion (yeast+ sugar + water) in bottle and left their mouth open. The yeast infusions were boiled in the flasks and let steam released out of the neck of each flask. Then flasks were allowed to cool no life was produced even after the lapse of several days. Because micro-organisms entering along with incoming air got stuck up in on the curved walls of the glass neck to prove this directly to the infusion it was observed that micro-organisms were produced within 48 hours. This proved that if care was taken and no micro-organisms or their spores were allowed to reach the infusion.
IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology has made an enormous impact on human welfare and in improving quality of life. It has helped us to produce more food and enabled man to realize the importance of balanced diet. Biological researches in many areas including pest control and genetics have made possible the production of better varieties of crops vegetables and fruits. As a result, crop production has increased, incidence of famine has declined and economic conditions for humankind have improved. In the field of health the discovery of antibiotics and vaccines is noteworthy these have been revolutionary in controlling and eliminating epidemic diseases for example man is relatively safe today from smallpox on account of vaccine technology.
What is Genetic Engineering?
Genetic engineering is a technology in which useful genes are inserted into the bacteria etc, to get required beneficial results. Using this technique, manipulation of heredity material is done and new species are produced e.g. Doli sheep. Today human insulin gene is inserted into DNA of bacteria to synthesize insulin on commercial bases. This insulin is found to be very useful in treatment of diabetic patients.
Islamic concepts About Origin of Life
We have got much information about origin of life by studying the Holy Quran.
Ultimate Creator
The first thing learnt from teachings of Quran is that Allah is the ultimate creator of everything whether plants, animals or non-living things. "Allah is the creator of all things and He is Guardian of overall things."- (Surah Zamar-Ayat 62)
Not only plants, animals and non-living things and human beings but also the heavens and whole universe have been created by Allah.
Origin of Life from Water
The second important fact we get from Quran is that Allah has created all living things from water.
"We made everything from water." - (Sura Ambia - Ayat 30)
Viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, different plants, all animals and humans are all living things. According to Quranic verses, all diverse living things were created from water.
Creation of Man
Allah also says in Quran:
"He created man from clay like the potter's." - (Sura Rehman - Ayat 14)
It seems that there were following two sages for creation of man:
The same can also be applied to other animals because there are certain similarities between structure of man and other animals. In vertebrate animals, the structures of digestive system, respiratory system, blood circulatory system, excretory system and reproductive system etc are similar to great extent, although differ in other details .Reproduction in living things. Once the life had been created, Allah implemented the process of reproduction for the continuity of races of animals and other organisms. The various stages of reproduction have been described in sura in following way:
"Then fashioned we drop a clot, then fashioned we clot a little lump, then fashioned we the lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh." (Sura Almominoon Ayat 14)
The close study of above sayings of God reveals that all animals had a common origin but they gradually underwent changes after words and became different from each other i.e. some animals became crawler, some bipedal and some other tetra pods. The present animals are advanced forms of the past animals who achieved this form after passing through many changes.
Biology (Bios=life + logos=Discourse)
It is the branch of science which deals with the study of living things both animals and plants is called biology the word of biology is combination of two Greek words (Bios meaning life andlogos meaning thought, discourse, reasoning or study.
The Main Branches of Biology
01. ZOOLOGY (Zoo = Animal +logos =discourse)
It is branch of biology that deals with the study of animal's kingdom is called zoology. Zoology is the study of animals, their structure, function and way of life. The word of zoology is combination of two words Zoo meaning Animal and logos meaning discourse.
02. BOTANY (Botan=meaning Green or plants)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of plants kingdom is called Botany by this definition plants include: algae, fungi, mosses, conifers and flowering plants. The word of Botany is taken from Botan meaning green or plants.
03. Micro Biology (Micro=small + Bio=living things+ logos=discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of very small living things we can see with the microscope, is called Microbiology. The word of micro biology is combination of three words Micro meaning very small Bio meaning living things and logos meaning discourse. For exampleamoeba, , euglena, etc.
04. Morphology (Morph=form+ logos=discourse)
The study of form and external structure of living organisms is called Morphology; the word of Morphology is combination of two Greek words Morph meaning form and logos meaning discourse. Plant morphology includes the study of the different shapes of leaves, for example, and root systems, Animal morphology studies the shapes of whole animals, or parts, including internal organs (e.g. skin morphology)
05. Anatomy (Ana= up + tomy =to cut)
It is the branch of morphology or biology which deals with the study of internal structure and it is a function of organ living things is called Anatomy. The word of anatomy is combination of two words Ana – up and tomy – meaning to cut.
06. Histology (Histoses-tissues + logos-discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of animal and plants tissues, structure, composition, and function of tissue in the human body with the aid of the microscope. Histology, sometimes called microscopic anatomy is very important in the field of biology
07. CYTOLOGY (Cytos-call, hollow+ logos-discourse)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of cells in terms of structure and functions of cells or call division and their organelles is called Cell Biology. The word of cytology is combination of two Greek words Cytos – hollow or cavity and logos meaning discourse.
08. Physiology (Phyios-Nature + logos- discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of different functions mechanical, physical, and biochemical performed by different parts of living organism is called Physiology. The word of physiology is combination of Greek words phyios - meaning Nature and logos- meaning discourse.
09. Ecology (Eco- house +logos – discourse)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of surrounding environment and relationships between living being and non living being, is called Ecology .The word of ecology is combination of two Greek words Eco – house and logos meaning discourse.
10. Taxonomy (Taxo=to classify+ nomos=law)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of classification of Living things is called taxonomy. Living organisms are classified into groups and subgroups based on similarities and differences. This is called classification, is that branch of biology in which organisms are classified and given scientific names. The word of taxonomy is combination of two Greek words Taxo– classification and nomos -meaning law.
11. Embryology (Embero=zygote + logos= discourse)
It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of embryo and their development or fertilizing egg (zygote) is called embryology.The stage between zygote and newly hatched or born baby is called embryo.
12. Genetics (Genno= to be born, give birth)
It is the branch of biology, which deals with the study of methods and principles of biological inheritance of characters from parents to their offspring, is called Genetics. The word of Genetics is taken from one Greek word Genno meaning to be born, to be birth.
13. Paleontology (paleo= Ancient+ onto =being, existing)
It is branch of biology which deals with the study of fossils is called paleontology, for example dinosaurs, or they could study ancient mammals, fish, or birds.
14. Biochemistry
The study of metabolic reactions taking place in living organisms is called Biochemistry. These reactions may be constructive or destructive. The assimilation of food is a constructive process and respiration is a destructive process.
15. Biotechnology
It is very modern and recent branch of biology it deals with the study of the (1) use of data and techniques of engineering and (2) technology for the study and solution of problems related with living organism especially of human beings.
16. Bio- physics
The study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences The study of various biological phenomena according to principles of physics is called biophysics. For example, movement of muscles and bones based on principles of physics
17. Bio- chemistry
The study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level The study of different biochemical like carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids etc found in cells of living organisms and hundreds of the underlying chemical reactions in cells of organisms are called biochemistry.
18. Bio-metry
The data obtained from observations and experiments on living organism is analyzed by various statistical methods called Biometry.
19. Bio- Geography
The study of plants and animals and the basis of geographical distribution are called Biogeography.
20. Bio-Economics
The study of living organisms from economic point of view is called Bio-Economics. It includes the study of cost effectiveness and viability of biological projects from commercial point of view.
QURANIC TEACHING ABOUT ANIMAL AND PTANTS
The holy Quran throws adequate light on the origin of life. The most important fact in the teachings of Quran is that Allah is the ultimate creator of everything. Almighty Allah has conveyed a great knowledge about animals and plants through our holy book. (Sura anbiyah 21 Ayah 30) “It says about the origin of life that we made from water every living things will they not then believe.”
An Egyptian Mufassir Allama Abdullah Yousuf Ali has symbolized water with the protoplasm. Thus explains that the protoplasm is the basis of all living things and vital power of protoplasm seems to depend on the constant presence of water. Allah has also indicated the usefulness of some of the plants and animals. To the human welfare, the following ayah can be quoted for reference. (Sura Nahal 16 Ayahs 66) : “And verily in cattle too will ye find an instructive sign. From what is within their bodies, between excretions and blood; we produce, for drink, milk, pure and agreeable, to those who drink it.”
Above passage refers to the wonderful act of production of plants and interaction of living and dead.
(Sura Anam Ayah 95) “It is Allah who splits the seed and the fruit stone. He brings forth the living from the dead. And the dead from the living such is Allah how then can you turn away from him.”
The Quran was revealed 1400 years ago to the last Prophet of God, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a guidance for all humanity Holy Quran explained some biological facts, which were beyond the knowledge of human being at that time scientists of today have tried to reveal these facts and have found the truth in all the indications learned from the holy Quran.
BIOLOGICAL METHOD
A biological method is a scientific approach used to resolve a biological problem related to or produced by a living organism in order to resolve a specific biological problem a biological method is adopted which consists of following steps.
1. Observation
Most of the biological investigations start with an observation. After selecting, specific biological problem, observations are made to collect relevant information. For example, take the case of Malaria. Malaria is the greatest killer disease of man for centuries. Malaria was one among many other diseases for which a cure was needed. In 1878, A French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of Malaria patient under microscope and observed tiny creatures in it. These creatures were later called Plasmodium.
2. Hypothesis:
To solve a scientific problem, one or more possible propositions are made based on the observations. Such a proposition is called a Hypothesis. The hypothesis is tested by scientific method. For example observation was made that plasmodium is present in the blood of malaria patients. So a question was raised is plasmodium the cause of malaria? It would be a good guess to say ‘yes’ but it is only a guess which can presented as a hypothesis that: Plasmodium is the cause of malaria?
3. Deduction:
The logical conclusion drawn from a hypothesis is called deduction. Testing one deduction and finding it correct does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is correct and scientific problem is solved. Actually, if more deductions are found to be correct; the hypothesis will be close to solution of the problem for example to test the above hypothesis the following deduction were made.
“If plasmodium is the cause of malaria then the entire patient suffering from malaria should have plasmodium in their blood while healthy people should not have”
4. Experiment:
Following groups are designed to perform experiments:
(a) Experimental Group
It is the group of those people who are affected in some way and we do not know the real cause e.g. a group of malarial patients.
(b) Control Group
It is the group of unaffected people e.g. persons group of healthy persons. By keeping both of these groups under similar conditions, the difference between them is determined. To know the real cause of malaria, the experts examined the blood of about 100 malarial patients (experimental group). On the other hand, the experts examined the blood of about 100 healthy persons (control group).
5. Result:
Experiment it was found that all the malarial patients had plasmodium in their blood where as the blood of healthy persons were free from plasmodium. These results verified the dedication and finally the hypothesis i.e. “Plasmodium is the cause of malaria”
6. Theory:
A theory is a set of scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved e.g. theory of evolution. Thus, a biologist studies a problem in a sequential manner through observation, question, hypothesis, deduction, testing or experimentation. A caution attitude expressed in the form of criticism and further tests are performed until a satisfactory answer is obtained.
------------------------MUSLIM BIOLOGISTS-----------
01. JABIR-BIN-HAYAN (722- 817 A.D)
Introduction
Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, was the born in 722 A.D, he was the son of the druggist (Attar). He practiced medicine and was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizir during the Abbssid Caliphate of Haroon al-Rashid. He shared some of the effects of the downfall of the Barmakis and was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he died in 817 A.D
Research
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, the alchemist Geber of the middle Ages, is generally known as The Father of Chemistry) Jabber bin Hayan was greatest of all the Muslim scientists and he was wrote books (Al-Nabatat) on plants and (Al-Haywan) on animal respectively.
02. Abul-QASIM AL-ZAHRAVI (936-1004 A.D)
Introduction:
Al-Zahravi was born in 936 A.D in the city of Al-Zahra, six miles northwest of Cordoba, and he was died in 1004 A.D.
Research :
He is the renowned Hakim and first surgeon of the Islamic world, considered a pioneer of modern surgery. Al-Zahravi wrote a medical encyclopedia spanning 30 volumes which included sections on surgery, medicine, orthopedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology, nutrition etc. This book was known as Al-Tasrif. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical, needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, bone saw and plaster. Moreover, zahravi is famous for the removal of the urinary bladder stone.
03. ZIAUDDIN –IBN-BAITIR (13TH century A.D)
Introduction:
Ahu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar was born in the Spanish city of Malaya (Malaga) towards the end of the 13th century. He was one of the greatest scientists of Muslim Spain and was the greatest botanist and pharmacist of the middle Ages.
Research :
Ibn-baiter specialized in the study of plants he traveled to several countries observed and studied many species of plants. He published the Kitab-al-Jami-fi-al-Adwiya-al-Mufrada. Which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. It contains details on at least 1,400 different plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. His work was also influential in Europe after it was translated into Latin in 1758.
04. AL-FARABI ------- (870-950 A.D)
introduction:
Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad Farabi was born in 870 A.D and he was died in 950 A.D.
Research :
He is renowned Hakim and surgeon of the Islamic world. Considered a pioneer of modern surgery. He wrote the two very well known books i.e. “kitab-i-Nabatat” and “kitab-ul-Haywanat”.
05. BU-ALI SINA: (980 A.D)
Introduction :
Abu Ali Al-Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina was born in the village of Afshana near Bukhara in 980 A.D which today is located in the far south of Russia.
Research:
He was greatest of all the Muslim scientists and is considered to be one of the founders of medicine he is acknowledged as the greatest expert of his time in medicines in both the East and West. Aside from medicines, he was expert in mathematics, astronomy, physics and Paleontology. He wrote the very well known books “Al-Qanoon” and “il Tib Al-Shifa”
06. IBU-AL HAITHAM (965-1039 A.D)
Introduction:
Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham was born in 965 A.D in in Basrah (present Iraq) and he was died in1039 A.D
Research:
Haitham is one of the most outstanding figures of Muslim history being an optician of great merit and stature some 200 scientific works said to have been written by him on diverse subjects. He was the first one to correct the Greek conception of vision locating Retina as the seat of vision his books”Kitabul-Manazir and Mizanul-Hikma were translated into Latin and other languages.
07. ALI BIN ISA:
Introduction
bu ali Yahya ibn Isa Ibn Jazla was an 11th-century physician of Baghdad.
Research :
He was a well-known eye-specialist of his time. Moreover, worked on structure and the diseases of the eye He wrote three volume on a subject in which he described 130 diseases of the eye. He has also given names of foods helpful in the cure of eye diseases.
08. ABDUL MALIK-ASMAI:
Introduction:
Abdul Malik Ibn Quraib Al-Asmai was born in Basrah (present Iraq) in 741A.D. He was a pious Arab and a good student of Arabic poetry. Al-Asmai died in 828 A.D.
Research:
Al-Asmai is considered as the first Muslim scientist who contributed to Zoology, Botany and Animal Husbandry. He wrote many books on animals and plants.
1. Al-kheil------------- is about Horse
2. Al-inbil------------- is about camels
3. As-sha--------------- is about sheep
4. Al-wahoosh---------- is about wild animal
5. Khalaqul-insan ------ is about human body
09. ALI-BIN-Rabban-TUBRI:
Introduction:
Al-Tabari was born in 775 A.D. he was the teacher of the distinguished physician Zakariya al-Razihe was also an accomplished Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer,- and He was died in870 A.D
Research:
Al-Tabari is most famous for his world-renowned medical treatise 'Firdous al-Hikmat.' Besides the medical science, seven-volume treatise Firdous al-Hikmat is the first Medical encyclopedia that incorporates several branches of medical science. This work was translated and published for the first time in the twentieth century. Prior to this publication, only five of his original manuscripts were found in libraries of the West. Dr. M.Z. Siddiqui has recently edited all volumes of Firdous al-Hikmat. .
10. IBN-AL NAFEES (13th century A.D)
He described the process of blood circulation in human body. Ibn al-Nafis, considered a pioneer of circulatory physiology, was the first to describe pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered one of the greatest physiologists in history.
11. ABU-USMAN-ALJAHIZ:
Abu Usman Amr Ibn Bakr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri al-Jahiz was born in Basra in 776 A.D. He studied in Basra) His most famous book 'Kitab al-Hayawan' (Book of Animals) is an encyclopedia of seven large volumes. This described characteristics of 350 species of animals especially about life of ants.
OTHER BIOLOGIST
01. Aristotle:
Greek philosopher educated at Athens one of the greatest thinkers and scientific investigator wrote more books on logic, metaphysics, physics, astronomy and meteorology, biology, politics etc. He was the first philosopher who divided the branches of philosophy into ethics.
02. Charles Darwin:
As a child Darwin was gentle, meditative and accurately observant of surrounding he loved to collect and to study all sorts of pebbles, shells, coins, birds, eggs and insects. Investigated theory of evolution which set forth in his “origin of species” in 1859
03. William Harvey English anatomist and physiologist discoverer of the theory of circulation of blood this famous theory he explained in his essays on the motion of the heart and blood described the blood circulation in human body.
04. Edward jenner:
Eminent English physician discovered vaccination a measure for guarding against smallpox he based his work on the country belief that infection with cowpox prevented contraction of smallpox and knowing that every country saying had truth in it, he worked for twenty years and established his principle of vaccination.
05. Louis Pasteur:
French chemist professor of chemistry at the University of Paris 1867 to 1888 discovered the causes of fermentation of alcohol and milk by his experiments he revealed a new world of bacteria put medical science on the path of finding the causes of many diseases and facilitated mothers of prevention made researches on the affections of anthrax, chicken cholera, diphtheria and hydrophobia.
06. Galileo
Was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and flautist who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution, His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations,
07. Watson and Crick
In 1962 James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in medicine or physiology for their determination in 1953 of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The molecule that is the basis for heredity, DNA, contains the patterns for constructing proteins in the body, including the various enzymes.
08. Robert Hook
Robert Hook was the English scientist and inventor who wrote the 1665 book “Micrographia”, in which he coined the term "cell" for a basic biological structure he described his microscopic observations of plant tissues and coined the term cell.
09. Linnaean
The particular classification (taxonomy) of Linnaeus, as set forth in his System (1735) and subsequent works, in the taxonomy of Linnaeus there are three kingdoms, divided into classes, and they, in turn, into orders, genera and species additional rank lower than species
10. Joseph Lister (J. Lister)
Were a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to reduced post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients
11. Gregor Johann Mendel
Mendel an Augustinian priest and scientist, who gained posthumous fame as the figurehead of the new science of genetics for his study of the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants, Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows particular laws, which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. The independent rediscovery of these laws formed the foundation of the modern science of genetics
CONCEPTS OF ABIOGENESIS AND BIOGENESIS:
In ancient times, there were two views about the origin of life:
A-Bio-Genesis:
The word of A-biogenesis is composed of three Greek words.
A= without + Bio=Life + Genesis = Generation
The Aristotle presented this famous theory of life.
‘According to this theory that living organisms (both plants and animals) are suddenly developed from clay or non-living organisms
Supplement:
This based on such observations as growth of fungus on pieces of bread and the appearance of maggots on dead bodies of animals. Aristotle believed that fishes, frogs and aquatic insects spontaneously developed mud and dust of marine water and Scorpion is produced or developed by cattle’s dung the ancients in the Aristotle, and for centuries later, had no especial question in regard to the matter and took it for granted that living things did come from animate matter. Virgil tells us of bees coming from the flesh of bullocks
Bio- Genesis:
The word of Biogenesis is composed of two Greek words.
Bio= Life + Genesis= Generation.
‘According to this theory that living organisms (both plants and animals) are not suddenly develop from clay or non-living organisms, but living–being can develop from living being
Supplement:
The idea of production of living from the non-living was experimentally analyzed. Italian scientists named Redi have presented this famous theory of life. Through several experiments, he showed that all living organisms arise from their parents. For example: a spider lays eggs, which develop into spiders, a mom and dad toads gets together and make a baby toad.
REDI’S EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT-NO. 01
According this experiment some dead snakes and fishes were placed in a box. After three days maggots appeared in their bodies .after eighteen days these maggots transformed into pupa some of these pupa were then transferred to separated glass containers covered with a sheet paper. After eight days, a fly emerged from each pupa and all flies were similar to those, which visited the body of the dead snakes and fishes. The flies had laid eggs on the dead snakes these eggs gave rise to maggots, which formed pupa and ultimately flies emerged from them.
EXPERIMENT-NO. 02
According the experiment Redi’s took eight bottles he put dead snakes and fishes in others bottle he kept four bottles open and four bottles covered, After a few days maggots appeared in the open bottles only on any maggots appeared in the bottles kept covered. That if the files prevented from entering the bottles the maggots did not appear.
EXPERIMENT-NO. 03
According the experiment some pieces of meat were put in bottle whose mouth was covered with gauze. Thus, air could enter the bottle while files remained out. Again, no maggots appeared on the piece of meat even after many days in spite of the fact that entry of air was possible. These experiment proved living beings rise, born or develop only living beings. Thus, the concept of biogenesis is correct and that of A-biogenesis is wrong.
NEEDHAM’S EXPERIMENT
In 1748 famous scientist Needham, boiled meet in water poured this gravy in bottle and closed their mouth with cork. After a few days many micro-organisms were produced in these covered bottle this once again excited the believers of A- biogenesis. I.e. life from non-living things
PASTURE’S EXPERIMENT
In 1864, pasture preformed his experiment in front of the commission formed of noted biologists to resolve this issue. He took flasks which had long curved ‘S’ shaped necks he added fermentable infusion (yeast+ sugar + water) in bottle and left their mouth open. The yeast infusions were boiled in the flasks and let steam released out of the neck of each flask. Then flasks were allowed to cool no life was produced even after the lapse of several days. Because micro-organisms entering along with incoming air got stuck up in on the curved walls of the glass neck to prove this directly to the infusion it was observed that micro-organisms were produced within 48 hours. This proved that if care was taken and no micro-organisms or their spores were allowed to reach the infusion.
IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology has made an enormous impact on human welfare and in improving quality of life. It has helped us to produce more food and enabled man to realize the importance of balanced diet. Biological researches in many areas including pest control and genetics have made possible the production of better varieties of crops vegetables and fruits. As a result, crop production has increased, incidence of famine has declined and economic conditions for humankind have improved. In the field of health the discovery of antibiotics and vaccines is noteworthy these have been revolutionary in controlling and eliminating epidemic diseases for example man is relatively safe today from smallpox on account of vaccine technology.
What is Genetic Engineering?
Genetic engineering is a technology in which useful genes are inserted into the bacteria etc, to get required beneficial results. Using this technique, manipulation of heredity material is done and new species are produced e.g. Doli sheep. Today human insulin gene is inserted into DNA of bacteria to synthesize insulin on commercial bases. This insulin is found to be very useful in treatment of diabetic patients.
Islamic concepts About Origin of Life
We have got much information about origin of life by studying the Holy Quran.
Ultimate Creator
The first thing learnt from teachings of Quran is that Allah is the ultimate creator of everything whether plants, animals or non-living things. "Allah is the creator of all things and He is Guardian of overall things."- (Surah Zamar-Ayat 62)
Not only plants, animals and non-living things and human beings but also the heavens and whole universe have been created by Allah.
Origin of Life from Water
The second important fact we get from Quran is that Allah has created all living things from water.
"We made everything from water." - (Sura Ambia - Ayat 30)
Viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, different plants, all animals and humans are all living things. According to Quranic verses, all diverse living things were created from water.
Creation of Man
Allah also says in Quran:
"He created man from clay like the potter's." - (Sura Rehman - Ayat 14)
It seems that there were following two sages for creation of man:
The same can also be applied to other animals because there are certain similarities between structure of man and other animals. In vertebrate animals, the structures of digestive system, respiratory system, blood circulatory system, excretory system and reproductive system etc are similar to great extent, although differ in other details .Reproduction in living things. Once the life had been created, Allah implemented the process of reproduction for the continuity of races of animals and other organisms. The various stages of reproduction have been described in sura in following way:
"Then fashioned we drop a clot, then fashioned we clot a little lump, then fashioned we the lump bones, then clothed the bones with flesh." (Sura Almominoon Ayat 14)
The close study of above sayings of God reveals that all animals had a common origin but they gradually underwent changes after words and became different from each other i.e. some animals became crawler, some bipedal and some other tetra pods. The present animals are advanced forms of the past animals who achieved this form after passing through many changes.
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CHAPTER-02
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE.
Discovery of Cell
In 1665, an English biologist Robert Hook made an improved microscope by combining lenses called compound microscope ad examined a slice of cork under it., He noticed in them small box like chambers of same size which he called "cells". After this, biologists observed different organisms under the microscope. They found that structure of cells was complex.
Cell Theory
In 19th century, the compound microscope was highly advanced and biologists observed things just a micrometer apart. After this, a series of discoveries started, which provided basic information for cell theory.
1. In 1831 - 33, Robert Brown discovered nucleus in cells of plants.
2. In 1838, a German botanist Mathias Scheiden observed that all plants were made up of cells.
3. In 1839, Theoclor Schwann obsrved that the bodies of animals were made up of cells which were similar to plant cells.
4. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the "Cell Theory". According to this, all organisms are made up of cells.
5. In 1840, J. Purkinji gave the name "Protoplasm" to the things found inside the cells. At that time, cell was considered as a bag of thick dense substance containing a nucleus.
Later on, resolving power and quality of microscopes were highly improved. Section cutting of tissues and cells and their staining became easier and better. It revealed that cell was not a simple mass of granular substance; instead it contained many sub cellular bodies called "Organelles". Each organelle has a definite job in the cell.
6. Human body is made up of about 100 trillion cells. From Amoeba and unicellular algae to whales and tallest red wood trees, all' are made up of similar basic units called cell. All animals and plants are thus made up of cells and cell products.
Salient Features of Cell Theory
01. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism
02. All animals and plants are made up of cells. Among these, some organisms are unicellular and some are multicellular.
03. New cells are formed the divisions of pre-existing cell.
(ANIMAL/plant CELL AND its FUNCTION)
WHAT IS CELL?
Definition: Cell is basic unit of life, the word of cell form cella Latin language meaning "small room” cell is the basic structural functional and biological unit of all living organism. Some organisms, such as most bacteria and Amoeba are unicellular other organisms, such as humans beings and plants are Multi-cellular.
Supplement:
Cells come in many different shapes and have different functions. Some cells are fairly large, e.g. a neuron in human body can be as long as 1 meter. The egg of an ostrich is the largest known cell of a living animal and an average egg is 15 cm long and 13 cm wide.
-----: ANATOMY OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL: ----
01. Cell membrane:
The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane, which surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell it is selectively-permeable membrane, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cells.
Function of cell membrane
The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, Plasma membrane provides a container to the cytoplasm. It facilitates passage of various substances in and out of the cell. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment.
02. Cell Wall (ONLY IN plant cell)
The cell wall is found only in plant cells. Cell wall is the outermost rigid layer composed of cellulose, and pectin
Function of cell well
The function of cell wall is protection, structural support and also it helps in filtering mechanism. In Plant cell walls some are thick and some are thin. For example, xylem vessel elements (which transport water and minerals) have thick walls, where as parenchyma cells (which store water and food) have thin walls.
03. Protoplasm / Cytoplasm:
It is jellylike fluid of the cell lying in between cell membrane and nucleus. It consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol, it is composed of water, salts and organic molecules. The cytosol has enzymes that take molecules and break down, waste and also aid in metabolic activity.
Function of cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out the cell and keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell would be deflated and materials would not be able to pass easily from one organelle to another. Chemically cytoplasm has in about 90% water.
04. Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are rod-shaped structures that are enclosed within two membranes and a matrix. The outer membrane and the inner membrane the membrane is where the chemical reactions occur and the matrix is where the fluid is held.
Function of Mitochondria
The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy they are called power of house the main job of mitochondria is to perform cellular respiration. This means it takes in nutrients from the cell, breaks it down, and turns it into energy. This energy is then in turn used by the cell to carry out various functions. Each cell contains a different number of mitochondria. The number present is dependent upon how much energy the cell requires. The more energy a cell needs the more mitochondria that will be present.
03. Endoplasmic reticulum:
It is the network of tube like structures and sac like structures. It arises from nuclear membrane and extends up to cell membrane it is also connected to the nuclear membrane so as to make a channel between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. . There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
01. Rough endoplasmic reticulum: having ribosome at its outer surface
02. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: without ribosome.
Function of ER
It provides mechanical support to the cell. Therefore, it is also known as cytoskeleton. It synthesizes proteins and hormones. It helps to transport ions, molecules and impulse or metabolites. It forms nuclear membrane. It also forms new cell membrane and components.
06. Ribosome:
The ribosome remains attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Chemically they are composed ofRNA ribonucleic acid and proteins.
Function of Ribosome
The most important function of the ribosome is to play an important role of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
07. Golgi body –
The Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi and was named after him. It lies near cell membrane.
Functions of Golgi body
Golgi complex is responsible for packaging of various substances in the cell.
08. Vacuole:
They are single membrane sac like structures, which is filled with liquid mass called vacuolar sap (cell sap). Its membrane is called tonoplast.
Function of the vacuole
It stores various organic and inorganic molecules, it balances the water in cell, it also helps in growth and elongation of cells, cell sap exerts turgor pressure, which keeps the plant cell turgid.
09. Centro some: (not present IN plant cell):
A Centro some consists of two centrioles and lies near to the nucleus. Centrioles are important in making some protein fibers, which help in movement of chromosomes during division of cell.
10. Plastids: -- (ONLY IN PLANT CELL)
Plastids are photosynthetic pigments containing bodies found in the cytoplasm of plant cell. There are three types of plastids
a) Chloroplast: -- Have green pigment it is found in leaves and other green part of plant they are manufacture of carbohydrates by the process of photosynthesis.
b) Chromoplast: --- Have coloured pigments other then green found in fruit, flower, petals and other coloured parts of plants.
c) Leucoplast: -- It is found in the cell of underground parts of plants. They store food in form of starch. E.g. roots
11. NUCLEUS:
Nucleus discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. It is most important and distinct part of the cell. It is present in center of the animal cell. While in plant cell, it is pushed on one side due to large central vacuole. Its structure is spherical or oval.
Function of Nucleus:
Nucleus control all activates of the cell, it is also surrounded by a membrane, which is called nuclear membrane. Nucleus is filled with a Gel like substance called nucleo-plasm, an organelle within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus. The nucleolus makes the chromosomes it contains a network of fine chromatic threads, which become visible as chromosomes when the cell prepares to divide the hereditary material called (DNA) De-oxy-ribonucleic acid is located on the chromosomes
DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus in chromosomes the information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people DNA is self-replicating, plays a central role in protein synthesis, and is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like and X-shaped objects found in the nucleus of most cells. They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene the gene is the unit of inheritance, and each chromosome may have several thousand genes. We inherit particular chromosomes through the egg of our mother and sperm of our father. The genes on those chromosomes carry the code that determines our physical characteristics, which are a combination of those of our two parents. In humans, animals, and plants, most chromosomes are arranged in pairs within the nucleus of a cell. Humans have 22 of these chromosome pairs, called autosomes. Humans have an additional pair of sex chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes
---: Cell division: ----
Every cell has definite limit of growth and when that limit is reached, it divides into all living cells as previously mentioned arise by division from pre existing cells. Cells reproduce and increase in number by division after growing to a certain maximum size, a cell may undergo the process of cell division. During a process the nucleus divides first, the nuclear division is called karyokinesis. While the cytoplasmic division is, called cytokinesis there are two main type of cell division found in living things.
01. Mitosis 02. Meiosis
01. Mitosis:
In this cell division process, a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in the parent cell this cell division is known as mitosis. Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided for convenience into four phases, which are
01. - Prophase
02. - Metaphase
03. - Anaphase
04. - Telophase
02. Meiosis:
In this cell division process, it is a special type of cell division in which a parent cell finally divides into four daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosome in each daughter cell reduce to half of their parent cell thus it is the reduction of the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes to the haploid (n) number. In the animals, meiosis produces gametes sperm and eggs while in plant it gives rise to spore. This division consists of the following phases.
01. Prophase -1
02. Metaphase -1
03. Anaphase -1
04. Telophase -1
What Is Organs?
Definition : The part of body that performs one or more specific function is called organ
An organ is a part of your body that performs a specific function, like your brain, lungs, or skin ,liver, kidney and heart are all organs of human body, in plant root, stem, and leaves are the organs these organs are formed by different tissues that perform different functions
---------:PLANTS TISSUE: -------
Q: What is a tissue? Define the Plant tissue.
A group of cells which are similar in structure and function is called tissue. Both plants and animals tissues have achieved increasing complexity by formation of organs and organ systems. In plants, there are two basic types of tissues, which are as follows.
01. Meristematic Tissues:
Plant tissues in which cells keep on dividing are called Meristematic tissue. So that the number of cells increases and the organism can grow. Meristematic cells are smaller with comparatively thin walls and a nucleus in the center this tissue is commonly present in root tips, shoot apex, and helps to increase the length of the root and the shoot by adding primary tissue.
02. Permanent Tissues:
Permanent tissue is formed from Meristematic cells this tissue is different from Meristematic tissue because its cells do not divide. The walls of these cells are thick enabling them to maintain their shape. The permanent tissue is of various types each type performs special function for example vascular tissue consisting of xylem and phloem transports water and food materials from one place to another. Xylem also provides support to the plant. Permanent tissue maybe classified into two groups.
a). Simple tissue
Simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a homogeneous mass.
b). Complex tissue:
Complex tissue made up of more than one type of cells working together as a unit.
01. Epidermal Tissue:
This is the outermost layer of cells that covers the roots, stems and leaves. Epidermal cells are tightly Packed, with no intercellular air spaces the main function of the epidermal cells is to protect the under lying tissue from injury these tissue protect the inner parts of plant.
02. Ground Tissues:
This tissue is meant for storing food but also prepare some food. This tissue is present in all parts of the plant except the epidermal and vascular tissues.
03. Supporting Tissues:
When cells reach a maximum size, their cell walls become thick due to deposition of special material and become dead such cells make up the supporting tissue
04. Vascular Tissue:
These tissues consist of elongated cells with thick or thin walls. Xylem and phloem are example of this tissue. The xylem conducts water and salts from the soil to the leaves, and provides support. The phloem conducts food from leaves to various parts of plants.
Q. What Is Animals Tissues? Define The Animals Tissues?
A group of cell, which is similar in structure and function, is called tissue.
Types of animal tissues01. Epithelial tissues:
Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the surface of the skin, line the various cavities and tubes of the body, and cover the internal organs mining
02. Connective Tissues:
The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a great amount of extra cellular material it consists of protein fibers embedded in protein or polysaccharide molecules. This tissue provides strength, support, and protection to the soft parts of the body. The animal body has two types of connective tissues soft and very hard tissues. Fatty tissues are example of the soft tissues and cartilage for example: the outer ear bone is special type of these tissues are hard tissues. Blood is also a special connective tissue it transports materials in the body.
03. Muscular Tissues:
This tissue formed of muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber is an elongated cell, which has the ability to contract and relax there, etc three kinds of muscle found in vertebrates:
Three kinds of muscle are found in vertebrates:
(a). Skeletal muscle :is made of long fibers whose contraction provides the force of locomotion and other voluntary body movements e.g. muscles of arm and legs which move these parts.
(b). Smooth muscle: lines the walls of the hollow structures of the body, such as the intestine, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the size of these hollow organs.
(c). Cardiac muscle. It is found in the heart
04. Nervous Tissues
This tissue is formed of the cells called neurons or nerve cell. Nerve cells are specialized to conduct massage in the form of electrical currents. The nervous system consists of this tissue.
Describe and short Note of unicellular Amoeba?
AMOEBA
Introduction
An Amoeba- proteus is a type of unicellular organism usually found in water ponds and rivers and on the surface of the leaves of water plants. It is microscopic in size measuring about 0. 25 mm to1 mm (Mili micron) across, it looks like a grayish blob under a microscope. Its shape is constantly changing as it moves along; the name amoeba comes from the Greek word amoibe, which meanschanging.
Supplement:Anatomy
01. Cell membrane
It is surrounded by a cell membrane.
02. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is very clear. It is differentiated into two parts. The outer portion, which is clear and transparent, is called ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part is calledendoplasm. The endoplasm contains many food vacuoles of different size in contractile vacuole and spherical nucleus. Organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are also present in the endoplasm.
03. Food vacuole:
In cytoplasm small and large size more food vacuole are filled with a watery fluid containing food. Amoebas eat Algae, bacteria, plant cells, and other microscopic protozoa.
04. contractile vacuole
The contractile vacuole is basically a water bubble within the endoplasm it’s function is to regulate the water content of the cell. It is also a means of excreting its waste from the cell (out through the cell membrane) via diffusion.
05. Nucleus:
Nucleus is usually present in the center but as the amoeba moves, the nucleus changes its position. Nucleus controls all the activities of amoeba body. If the nucleus is somehow removed from the cell the cell quickly dies. It is an essential part in the reproduction of cell.
06. Pseudopodia:
The animal moves by producing finger like projections called pseudopodia. The pseudopodia also used to capture food particles. Amoeba respires by exchanging gases with the surrounding water through its surface.
BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS (SARSOUN
Introduction and External structure
Brassica Campestris is botanical name of sarsoun. It is mustard plant and belongs is herb family. It is cultivated in the winter season and will be completed the start in the summer, Brassica plant in about 75-100 Cm height. The stem of Brassica plant is thin and the leaf grows from the node. The leaves of Brassica plant are big and cut off from the sides. There is swollen vein in the middle of leaf which is known as midrib. Brassica plants bear’s small yellowish flowers on the most important parts of the plant. Brassica leaves are used for the food purpose (vegetable purposes) seed contains the oil and it is useful for the food (nutrition) and medicines.
Supplement
System of Brassica
01. Shoot System: It contains stem and leaves which grows in the sunlight atmosphere.
02. Root System: It grows underground in the absence of sunlight, containing the part of roots of the plant. He observe underground water and food
Parts of Brassica
01. Vegetative Part
The vegetative parts are those, which do not directly take part in sexual reproduction. These parts are root, stem, branches and leaves.
02. Reproductive Part:
The reproductive parts consist of sex organs, which are directly related reproduction these are flowers, fruit and seed.
BRASSICA ROOT SYSTEM
The root system of Brassica is opposite to the sunlight under the soil this system absorbs the plant food (salt and water).it is divided into three parts respectively as under.
01. PRIMARY ROOT:
It grows from the radical of seed it is deep under the soil end of primary root bears the root cap which protects the end part of primary root. There are three part of primary root.
(a) Conducting region: It is collects the absorbed food or nutrition.
(b) Absorbing region: Bears the secondary root and root hair these absorb the food.
(c) Growing region: The root cap is bears at the end of this region this part of root goes deep in soil.
02. Secondary Root:
It is grows from primary root which is besides the plant which absorb the food materials.
03. Tertiary Root:
It grown from secondary roots and is fiber like roots. These roots absorb the food and send to the secondary root.
-----: INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT SYSTEM OF BRASSICA: --------
A cross section of Brassica root shows the outer part of a root called epidermis, which protects the root. Root hairs are outgrowths of epidermal tissue or cell next to epidermis is the cortex. Cortex is composed of parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells store food material. The root surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called endodermis next to the endodermis is a layer of cells called pericycle. Branch of root originate from the pericycle.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BRASSICA LEAF SYSTEM: -----------------:
A leaf grows out on the stem and its branches from the nodes generally the leaf of Brassica consist the lower stalk like part the petiole and upper green expanded portion is known as lamina. There is a swollen vein in the middle of the leaf, which is known as midrib the branch veins emerge and spread in the leaf like a net. These veins are actually vascular bundles consisting of xylem and phloem this network of vein supports the leaf and keeps its lamina in an expanded position. The function of the leaf is to prepare food therefore all of its tissues are arranged in such a way that photosynthesis can take place easily.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF
When transverse section of leaf is observed under the microscope, following structure are visible.
EpidermisThis layer of cells covers both upper and lower surfaces of leaf. Upper layer is called upper epidermis and lower layer is called lower epidermis. There is more number of stomata in lower epidermis than upper epidermis. This results in less transpiration and CO2 enters according to need. Each stomata consists of two guard cells, which are bean shaped, or kidney shaped. There is a pore between guard cells through which exchange of gases takes place and water vapors come out of leaves.
Mesophyll The tissue present between upper and lower epidermis is called mesophyll. It consists of two parts.
Palisade Mesophyll
Upper part consists of elongated cells which hare lying vertical. These are double layered closely packed cells and are called Palisade Mesophyll.
Spongy Mesophyll
The lower part is sponge like and has more intercellular spaces. This is called spongy mesophyll. Both types of cells have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. So, photosynthesis takes place here. The function of mesophyll is to manufacture food for the plant.
Vascular Tissue
It consists of midrib and veins. The midrib is bundle. Upper part of midrib is xylem and lower part is phloem. Pericycle and endodermis surround this bundle. Besides this Lamina has other bundle which are called veins.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM OF BRASSICA
When transverse section of stem of Brassica is observed under the microscope, following parts are visible.
a.Epidermisit is the outermost protective layer of stem. Outer to epidermis, there is layer of cut in which reduces loss of water from stem. The cells are compactly arranged and there are no intercellular spaces.
b. CortexIt is inner to epidermis. It is made up of many layers of parenchyma and collenchyma tissues. The main function of cortex is storage of water and food.
c. Endodermisit is innermost layer of cortex. It is not prominent in stem. It allows suitable quantity of water to enter cortex from xylem.
d. Pericycleit is in the form of bundles in between the endodermis and vascular bundles. It is composed of sclerenchyma cells. It forms bundle cap.
e. Vascular Bundles
In stem, vascular bundles are arranged in the form of ring. Vascular bundle consists of phloem and xylem. Phloem is towards outside and xylem is towards inside. Few layers of cambium are present between the xylem and phloem. Cambium causes increase in diameter of the stem with passage of time.
f. Medullary Rays
There are present few layers of thin walled living cells between every two layers. These are called medullary rays. The medullary rays connect the cortex with pith for the transport of food.
BRASSICA FLOWER SYSTEM
Brassica flower situated on a stalk known as pedicel, the tip of the pedicel bears thalamus the floral leaves are arranged in four whorls on thalamus. Brassica plant bears small, yellowish flowers. Flower are the most beautiful and important part of the plant.
Parts of flower
01. CALYX:
The calyx is the outermost whorl that protects the flower. The calyx generally contains flat structures that protect the flower when it is a bud or before it blooms. These structures are called sepals. In Brassica consists of four free sepals the most important function of the calyx is to cover the inner parts of the flower and to protect them from sunlight and rain.
02. COROLLA:
The second whorl directly inside the calyx is called the corolla and may be the most familiar part of the flower. The corolla composed of four free yellow petals. The most important function of the corolla is to help in pollination in the plant. The flower becomes very conspicuous that honeybees, butterflies and other insects are easily attracted and thus help in pollination.
03. ANDROECIUM:
The whorl that contains the male parts is called the androecium. The roots of this word will help you remember that it contains the male parts. The Greek word 'Andros' means 'man,' and the word'oikos' means 'house.
Supplement:
This is the third whorl of floral leaves. Its part is not leaf like. The androecium's consists of six free stamens, which are the male reproductive organs of the flower. Flower male organs stalk is known as filament and the upper swollen part called the anther. Each anther contains numerous pollen grains. When the anther matures longitudinal silt in its wall enables the pollen grain to escape. The pollen grain is transfer at in female organ in one flower to another flower.
04. GYNOECIUM:
The innermost whorl contains the female parts and is called the gynoecium. Again, let's look at the root words. The Greek word 'Gyno' means woman and we already know that 'oikos' means 'house.' So, the word 'gynoecium' means 'woman house.
Supplement:
This is fourth whorl of flower; the central position in the flower the part of female stalk is called style. The lower swollen part is called ovary. The style has swollen tip which is called stigma. In the ovary, many ovules are present, which ripen into seeds. The ovary ripens, and is converted into fruit. The fruit of Brassica is long dry capsule with many seeds. The seed can be easily dispersed by air currents.
--------------: FROG (RANA TIGRINA) HABITS: ----------------
Common living being is known is in sindhi language as Dedar, in Urdu as Mendak and it is called in English frog, but this animal in zoology is called Rana-Tigrina.
Classification of frog
Zoological name: -- Rana-tigrina
Phylum: --- Chordate
Sub-phylum:---- Vertebrata
Class: --- Amphibian
Genes: --- Rana
Species: ---- tigrina
The common frog of Pakistan and India lives in damp places near water. It crawls on land by means of both pairs of limbs, but usually jumping about with the strong posterior pair.
EXTERNAL FEATURES:
The body of the frog consists of the head a trunk and two pairs of limbs neck and tail being absent. A smooth slimy skin covers the whole body. Skin is olive colour and mottled with irregular black patches on the upper or dorsal surface. The head on the dorsal surface of anterior end of the snout are two small openings known as external nostrils .the external nostrils through which the frog draws air for respiration. A short distance behind the external nostril is two large prominent eyes and somewhat below each eye is a large dark-coloured area in the middle of which is a circular patch of thin skin this is the Eardrum or tympanic membrane of ear. Attached to the trunk are two pairs of limbs. A pair of fore limbs or arms and hind limbs or legs the fore limbs has four short tapering fingers in the male frog the first finger is thicker than others. The hind limbs five fingers in between the fingers there is a thin membranes known as web. Frog feeds insects, worms and other small animals, which it captures by suddenly shooting out its sticky tongue. Frog is found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay eggs. They hide during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and stay there throughout the winter this phenomenon is called hibernation
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF FROG:
Definition: The group of organs in a system which break down food and absorb the nutrients used by the body for fuel. Or energy is called digestive system
Supplement:
Part of Digestive system:
01. Buccal Cavity: -----
The huge slit like mouth lies between two semi circular jaws, of which the upper is immovable but the lower freely moveable in a vertical direction. The upper jaw bears small conical teeth called maxillary teeth in the middle of front part of the roof of the buccal cavity are two small groups of teeth called vomerine teeth. They are not meant for chewing the food but simply serve to prevent the prey from slipping out of the mouth the worn out teeth fall off and are continually replaced by new ones. Just behind the upper jaw near the anterior end of the roof of buccal cavity are two small opening called internal nostrils. The tongue is a large fleshy structure lying on the floor of the buccal cavity it is attached at its front end to the lower jaw. The surface of the tongue is covered with a sticky substance gland in Lower jaw in the male frog the slit-like openings of the vocal sacs are situated on the buccal cavity, beneath tongue; the female frog has no vocal sacs.
02. Pharynx: ----
The posterior narrow part of the buccal cavity called pharynx, which leads into a wide tube the oesophagus. The pharynx just behind the tip of the tongue is a slit like opening the glottis. The glottis opens into the lungs. When the food passes into the oesophagus the glottis, is closed and during respiration, it is open
03. Oesophagus and Stomach: -----
The pharynx leads into a short wide tube this is tube called oesophagus. The frog has no neck so this tube is very short. This lies in the anterior part of body cavity and open into the stomach. Therefore, the food goes to the stomach by this tube.
The stomach is a thick walled tabular sac or glandular sac like shaped. The wide front mouth of stomach called cardiac. The lower part of stomach is narrow mouth is called pyloric in which the food gathered temporary. Food grounded in stomach and mixed with an enzyme, gastric gland, HCL and pepsin, which partially digest proteins. The solved food is absorbed by stomach and the rest food, go to Duodenum.
04. Intestine: Duodenum (Small Intestine)
It is a zigzag structure it is long narrow coiled tube, wrapped in a curtain called mesentery. The partially digested food from the stomach enters the small intestine through pyloric end where its digestion in completed the digested food is absorbed in to the blood. Indigestible parts of food enter the large intestine also called rectum.
Rectum (Large Intestine)
The rectum is glandular sac like shaped rectum one side is jointed to urinary bladder and other side opens in urethra. The indigested parts of food enter the rectum, and are expelled out as faeces through the cloacal aperture.
05. Liver and Pancreas:
The liver is a large reddish-brown it make the secretion known as bile juice. Between the lobes of the liver is rounded pouch called Gall bladder, which store the bile juice. A bile duct arises from it on it way this duct passes through pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct. It opens in the duodenum. The pancreas makes the secretion called pancreatic juice. The bile juice and pancreatic juice help to complete the digestion of food in the small intestine
Respiratory System of Frog
There are three methods of respiration in frog.
01. Pulmonary Respiration:
A frog may also breathe much like a human, by taking air in through their nostrils and down into their lungs. The mechanism of taking air into the lungs is however slightly different than in humans. Frogs do not have ribs nor a diaphragm, which in humans helps serve in expand the chest and thereby decreasing the pressure in the lungs allowing outside air to flow in. In order to draw air into its mouth the frog lowers the floor of its mouth, which causes the throat to expand. Then the nostrils open allowing air to enter the enlarged mouth. The nostrils then close and the air in the mouth is forced into the lungs by contraction of the floor of the mouth. To eliminate the carbon dioxide in the lungs the floor of the mouth moves down, drawing the air out of the lungs and into the mouth. Finally the nostrils are opened and the floor of the mouth moved up pushing the air out of the nostrils.
02. Cutaneous Respiration:
Respiration through moist skin is called as cutaneous respiration. Skin is richly supplied with alone vessels and is permeable to gases. Oxygen gets dissolved in moist surface of skin them exchange of gases takes place by diffusion. It goes on all the time weather frog is in water or on land. It is only mode of respiration during hibernation or aestivation or when frog is under water.
03. Buccal Cavity Respiration
Respiration through the mucous membrane of the buccal cavity is known as buccal cavity respiration when the frog is at rest, the lungs are only intermittently filled, but the air is continually drawn into and driven out of the buccal cavity through the nares. During this period gaseous exchange takes place between the oxygen of the air in the Buccal cavity and carbon dissolved in the blood circulating through the capillaries of its roof
-----------Heart of frog-------------:
In the body cavity of the frog an automatic pumping organ system occur which is called heart. It is conical shaped located in the anterior region of body cavity. It is enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. The frog is three chambered namely
01. Right auricle
02. Left auricle and 03. Ventricle
Are true chambers and sinus venous and Truns arterious are not true called accessory chambers When the sinus-venosus contracts the deoxygenated blood, which received from the precaval and postcaval is forced through the sinuo-auricular opining into the right auricle, the presence of valves in the precaval and postcaval and steady onward flow of blood in them prevent the blood in the sinus venosus from being forced back into these veins. Meanwhile the left auricle is filled with the oxygenated or aerated blood brought by the pulmonary vein from lungs and drives the blood through the auriculo-ventricular opining into the ventricle the ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right auricle and oxygenated blood from the left auricle. The ventricle contracts immediately after the auricle as it does so the auriculo-ventricular valve meeting together closes the opining and thus prevents the reflex of blood into the auricles. When ventricle is contracted the blood flows into latter chamber from truncus-arterious. It is divided in right and left three arteries.
01. Carotid arch: Carotid arch is divided into external and internal carotid artery; it supplies oxygenated blood to brain, eyes, nose, ear and other close organs.
02. Systemic arch: supplies blood to from various parts of body. In addition,
03. Pulmo-cutaneous: deoxygenated blood supply to lungs and skin of frog.
: -----------Arterial System of frog ------------:
Definition: Blood vessels, which carry oxygenated blood away from heart to different part of the body, are called arteries. They constitute a system called Arterial system.
Supplement:
The arterial system in frog beings with truncus arteriosus which divides into left and right branches or trunks, each of which subdivides into three major vessels or aortic arches
01. Carotid arch
It is divides into two branches: external and internal carotids.
a) External carotid: It is the smaller inner branch lying superficially that carries blood to the tongue, lower jaw.
b) Internal carotid: It supplies blood to the brain, orbit, roof of buccal cavity and skull.
02. Systemic arch
It is the longest of the three arches and with greatest distribution of blood. The two systemic archer curve dorsally around the oesophagus and join with each other behind the heart to form the dorsal aorta. In its course each systemic arch gives off three arteries.
a). Sub-clavein artery: It is a large artery supplying blood to shoulder region and arm of forelimb.
b) coeliac-mesenteric artery: It is a single large artery arising from the junction of the two systemic arches. It has two main branches i.e. coeliac artery that supplies blood to stomach, pancreas and liver; and the anterior mesenteric artery that supplies blood to the spleen and intestine.
c) Gonad artery: A pair of short arteries to gonads called spermatic artery in male frog and ovarian artery in female frog supplies blood to testis and ovary respectively..
d) Renal artery: On passing into the two kidneys, dorsal aorta gives out 5-6 pairs of small renal arteries in a series into both the kidneys.
e) Common iliac artery: The dorsal aorta finally bifurcates (divide into two branches) poster artery into two common iliac, they are supplying a femoral artery to hip and upper thigh, andsciatic artery to lower portion of hind limbs
03. Pulmo-cutaneous arch
It divides into main two arteries i.e. pulmonary artery to the lung and cutaneous artery to skin of dorsal and lateral sides.
-------------Venous system of frog -----------------
Definition: The blood vessels which bring the blood from different body parts, back into the heart are called veins. The system containing of veins is called venous system.
Supplement:
The union of three veins forms the sinus venous by three large veins, the right and left Pre-caval vein in front and the post-caval behind pre-caval.
01. External jugular: The jugular carried away the deoxygenated blood from the eye, ear nose, tongue and the close organs,
02. Innominate : Innominate from brain and sub-clavian
03. Subclavian : carries from fore limbs and then enters sinus-venosus.
The post cavil is divided in left and right hepatic vein, it receives blood from liver. The hepatic portal arises from liver divided larger and small veins it carried away the digestive system for example stomach, small and large intestine and spleen etc. When the post cavil is large median vein lying ventral to the dorsal aorta posterior it is formed by five or six pairs of renal vein, from the kidney, and the genital vein from the reproductive organs. The veins are drawn from besides the two kidney these veins are called renal portal. The renal portal is divided into two veins, and a vein is drown from the liver called abdominal vein which is divided into two veins and it combine with renal portal and makes two pairs one is called sciatic vein and second is called femoral vein. They carry away the deoxygenated blood from hind limb and abdomen and supply the blood to kidney and direct to liver.
Portal system of the frog
01. Hepatic portal system:
The blood vessels (veins) bringing blood from various organs of digestive system (stomach, duodenum, Ilium, rectum, pancreas and spleen etc) combine to form a large vein. This is known as hepatic portal vein. Near the liver a branch of abdominal vein combines with it. Then it enters the liver and divides and re-divides to form capillaries. The, blood entering the liver through hepatic portal veins goes to the post caval by means of hepatic veins. The blood from post caval goes to heart through sinus venosus.
The blood coming back into the heart is of two types.
a) Oxygenated blood which comes from lungs by pulmonary veins
b) Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body enters sinus venosus through pre-caval and post caval and then enters the right atrium.
02. Renal portal system:
The veins which carry alone to a capillary system in kidneys constitute the renal portal system. Blood of each hind leg is collected by two veins, an outer femoral vein and an inner sciatic vein. On entering the abdominal cavity the femoral divides into a dorsal renal portal and ventral pelvic vein. The Renal portal unites with the sciatic vein of its side and while running along there outer border of kidney of its side it receives alone from lumbar region by a dorso-lumbar vein. Renal postal vein enters the kidney by several branches which break up in to capillaries.
Renal Portal Vein
The veins which bring blood from the hind limbs and pelvic region combine to form renal portal vein. The renal portal vein enters the kidney of its side and form capillaries. Blood from kidney goes to the post caval through renal veins. Post caval caries the blood to the heart.
Male Reproductive System of frog
Definition: The process of production of new babies by their parents is called Reproduction.
Supplement:
The reproductive system of male frog consists of a pair of testes and reproductive ducts. Each testis is attached to kidney by means of a membrane. At anterior end of testis, there is present fat body. Each testis is composed of small ducts called seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced. Sperms enter the kidney via vasa efferentia. Sperms reach the cloaca through ureter. From here, these are discharged in the water through cloacal aperture in this way, ureter in male frog does two jobs, one is removal of urine and other is removal of sexual material, so it is called urinogenital duct and the urinary system and genital system are collectively call urinogenital system.
Female Reproductive System of frog
Definition: The process of production of new babies by their parents is called Reproduction.
Supplement:
The reproductive system of female frog consists of a pair of ovaries and reproductive ducts. Ovaries are present close to the kidneys. At their anterior ends, there are present fat bodies. Each ovary contains many follicles in which eggs (ova) are produced. During breeding season, ovaries are enlarged. Ova are released into the body cavity through the coelomic fluid, these enter the oviduct. The anterior part of oviduct is funnel like called oviducal funnel and reach the uterus. The uterus opens into the cloaca. At last, ova are discharge in the water through cloacal aperture. In water, union of sperm with egg results in formation of zygote. From zygotes, offspring are formed and in this way continuity of race is ensured.
Definition of blood Vessels
Artery
The tube, which carry the oxygenated blood away for the heart to the various parts of body as known as artery they are thin than the vein.
All Arteries supply oxygenated blood to various parts of body but only one artery pulmonary carries deoxygenated blood it supply blood to lungs.
Vein
The tubes, which return blood to the heart from the various parts of body, is called vein. All veins return deoxygenated blood of body. But only one vein pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood. Pulmonary veins go is to lungs and it supplies oxygenated blood from heart.
Capillaries
These are fiber like tube exchange material between tissue and blood are called capillaries
Excretory system of frog
Definition: The process, act or function of discharging or ejecting waste product from the body is known as Excretion.
Supplement:
This function is performed by kidney, which filter out the excretory matter from the blood and pass it out in the form of urine. The urine is carried from the kidney by a pair of tubes called ureters which open into the cloaca from the cloaca it passed out directly through cloacal aperture.
Ear of Frog
The organ of hearing in frog is "Ear" like other vertebrates.
Structure of Ear of Frog
The ear of frog consists of following three parts.
01. Outer Ear
External ear consists of a bone. The vibration is produced in external ear when sound waves strike with it.
02. Middle Ear
Middle Ear consists of a tympanic membrane. On the inner side of the membrane is a cavity known as tympanic cavity. The cavity contains small rod like bones called ossicles. The middle ear is connected to internal ear by a tube which is called Eustachian tube; it transfers the vibrations towards the internal ear.
03. Inner Ear
The internal ear is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semi circular canals. These canals are filled with membraneth of labyrinth fluid and sensory cells are located at special places in these canals.
Function of Ear of Frog
When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane, it is set into vibration, this is in turn vibrates the internal ear and thus sound waves stimulate the hearing receptors in the inner ear. The internal ear, in addition to hearing also keeps the balance of the body.
Eye of frog (organs of sight)
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head if we make a vertical section of eye we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the sensory retina. The retina contains photoreceptor cells the outside retina is the choroids, which is richly supplied with blood capillaries are supplying nutrients to the retina. The anterior transparent part of eye is called cornea behind the cornea is Iris. The Iris has a window called pupil; behind the pupil is the lens of the eye. The cornea and lens focus light on the retina. A jelly like fluid is present between the lens and retina through which light passes before it strikes retina Optic nerve take the sensory massages from the eye to brain
Nervous system of frog
Definition : The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is called nerves system.
The nervous system is composed of two parts
01. Central nerves system
02. Peripheral nerves system
01. Central Nervous System
The central nerves system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Brain of Frog
Brain is enclosed in protective layers and is located in cranium or brain case, which is major part of skull.
Brain is divided into three parts:
(a) Fore Brain: This is anterior part of brain. This is associated with sense of smell. It controls the secretion of many hormones. It also receives messages from internal and external environment of the body.
(b) Mid Brain: This is central part of brain. This is associated with eyes and vision.
(c) Hind Brain: This is the posterior part of brain. It controls and coordinates body movements and maintains balance of the body. It also controls respiration, circulation, taste and digestion.
Spinal Cord
The posterior part of the brain is continuous with spinal cord. It runs through the vertebral column. The spinal cord controls the movements of trunk region.
02. Peripheral Nervous System of Frog
The peripheral nerves system comprise nerves which connect the nervous system with various parts of the body i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs. These nerves connect the central nervous system with various parts of the body. Some nerves originate from brain. These are called cranial nerves other nerves originate from spinal cord. These are called spinal nerves. In frog, there are 10 pairs of cranial nerves and 9 or 10 pairs of spinal nerves. Basically, nerves are of three types:
Sensory Nerves: These take messages from sensory organs to central nerves system.
Motor Nerves: These take messages from central nerves system to glands and muscles.
Mixed Nerves: These do both above mentioned functions
Cranial Nerves: In these nerves, first, second and eight pairs are sensory nerves which are associated with senses of smell, sight and hearing. Third, fourth and sixth pairs are motor nerves which carry message from brain to the eye. Nine and ten pairs are mixed nerves, which are supplied to jaw, face, tongue and heart.
Spinal Nerves: These are all mixed nerves. These control functions of different organs.
DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus the information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people DNA is self-replicating, plays a central role in protein synthesis, and is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like and X-shaped objects found in the nucleus of most cells. They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene the gene is the unit of inheritance, and each chromosome may have several thousand genes. We inherit particular chromosomes through the egg of our mother and sperm of our father. The genes on those chromosomes carry the code that determines our physical characteristics, which are a combination of those of our two parents.
In humans, animals, and plants, most chromosomes are arranged in pairs within the nucleus of a cell. Humans have 22 of these chromosome pairs, called autosomes. Humans have an additional pair of sex chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes
In 1665, an English biologist Robert Hook made an improved microscope by combining lenses called compound microscope ad examined a slice of cork under it., He noticed in them small box like chambers of same size which he called "cells". After this, biologists observed different organisms under the microscope. They found that structure of cells was complex.
Cell Theory
In 19th century, the compound microscope was highly advanced and biologists observed things just a micrometer apart. After this, a series of discoveries started, which provided basic information for cell theory.
1. In 1831 - 33, Robert Brown discovered nucleus in cells of plants.
2. In 1838, a German botanist Mathias Scheiden observed that all plants were made up of cells.
3. In 1839, Theoclor Schwann obsrved that the bodies of animals were made up of cells which were similar to plant cells.
4. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the "Cell Theory". According to this, all organisms are made up of cells.
5. In 1840, J. Purkinji gave the name "Protoplasm" to the things found inside the cells. At that time, cell was considered as a bag of thick dense substance containing a nucleus.
Later on, resolving power and quality of microscopes were highly improved. Section cutting of tissues and cells and their staining became easier and better. It revealed that cell was not a simple mass of granular substance; instead it contained many sub cellular bodies called "Organelles". Each organelle has a definite job in the cell.
6. Human body is made up of about 100 trillion cells. From Amoeba and unicellular algae to whales and tallest red wood trees, all' are made up of similar basic units called cell. All animals and plants are thus made up of cells and cell products.
Salient Features of Cell Theory
01. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism
02. All animals and plants are made up of cells. Among these, some organisms are unicellular and some are multicellular.
03. New cells are formed the divisions of pre-existing cell.
(ANIMAL/plant CELL AND its FUNCTION)
WHAT IS CELL?
Definition: Cell is basic unit of life, the word of cell form cella Latin language meaning "small room” cell is the basic structural functional and biological unit of all living organism. Some organisms, such as most bacteria and Amoeba are unicellular other organisms, such as humans beings and plants are Multi-cellular.
Supplement:
Cells come in many different shapes and have different functions. Some cells are fairly large, e.g. a neuron in human body can be as long as 1 meter. The egg of an ostrich is the largest known cell of a living animal and an average egg is 15 cm long and 13 cm wide.
-----: ANATOMY OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL: ----
01. Cell membrane:
The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane, which surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell it is selectively-permeable membrane, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cells.
Function of cell membrane
The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, Plasma membrane provides a container to the cytoplasm. It facilitates passage of various substances in and out of the cell. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment.
02. Cell Wall (ONLY IN plant cell)
The cell wall is found only in plant cells. Cell wall is the outermost rigid layer composed of cellulose, and pectin
Function of cell well
The function of cell wall is protection, structural support and also it helps in filtering mechanism. In Plant cell walls some are thick and some are thin. For example, xylem vessel elements (which transport water and minerals) have thick walls, where as parenchyma cells (which store water and food) have thin walls.
03. Protoplasm / Cytoplasm:
It is jellylike fluid of the cell lying in between cell membrane and nucleus. It consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol, it is composed of water, salts and organic molecules. The cytosol has enzymes that take molecules and break down, waste and also aid in metabolic activity.
Function of cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out the cell and keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell would be deflated and materials would not be able to pass easily from one organelle to another. Chemically cytoplasm has in about 90% water.
04. Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are rod-shaped structures that are enclosed within two membranes and a matrix. The outer membrane and the inner membrane the membrane is where the chemical reactions occur and the matrix is where the fluid is held.
Function of Mitochondria
The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy they are called power of house the main job of mitochondria is to perform cellular respiration. This means it takes in nutrients from the cell, breaks it down, and turns it into energy. This energy is then in turn used by the cell to carry out various functions. Each cell contains a different number of mitochondria. The number present is dependent upon how much energy the cell requires. The more energy a cell needs the more mitochondria that will be present.
03. Endoplasmic reticulum:
It is the network of tube like structures and sac like structures. It arises from nuclear membrane and extends up to cell membrane it is also connected to the nuclear membrane so as to make a channel between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. . There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
01. Rough endoplasmic reticulum: having ribosome at its outer surface
02. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: without ribosome.
Function of ER
It provides mechanical support to the cell. Therefore, it is also known as cytoskeleton. It synthesizes proteins and hormones. It helps to transport ions, molecules and impulse or metabolites. It forms nuclear membrane. It also forms new cell membrane and components.
06. Ribosome:
The ribosome remains attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Chemically they are composed ofRNA ribonucleic acid and proteins.
Function of Ribosome
The most important function of the ribosome is to play an important role of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
07. Golgi body –
The Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi and was named after him. It lies near cell membrane.
Functions of Golgi body
Golgi complex is responsible for packaging of various substances in the cell.
08. Vacuole:
They are single membrane sac like structures, which is filled with liquid mass called vacuolar sap (cell sap). Its membrane is called tonoplast.
Function of the vacuole
It stores various organic and inorganic molecules, it balances the water in cell, it also helps in growth and elongation of cells, cell sap exerts turgor pressure, which keeps the plant cell turgid.
09. Centro some: (not present IN plant cell):
A Centro some consists of two centrioles and lies near to the nucleus. Centrioles are important in making some protein fibers, which help in movement of chromosomes during division of cell.
10. Plastids: -- (ONLY IN PLANT CELL)
Plastids are photosynthetic pigments containing bodies found in the cytoplasm of plant cell. There are three types of plastids
a) Chloroplast: -- Have green pigment it is found in leaves and other green part of plant they are manufacture of carbohydrates by the process of photosynthesis.
b) Chromoplast: --- Have coloured pigments other then green found in fruit, flower, petals and other coloured parts of plants.
c) Leucoplast: -- It is found in the cell of underground parts of plants. They store food in form of starch. E.g. roots
11. NUCLEUS:
Nucleus discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. It is most important and distinct part of the cell. It is present in center of the animal cell. While in plant cell, it is pushed on one side due to large central vacuole. Its structure is spherical or oval.
Function of Nucleus:
Nucleus control all activates of the cell, it is also surrounded by a membrane, which is called nuclear membrane. Nucleus is filled with a Gel like substance called nucleo-plasm, an organelle within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus. The nucleolus makes the chromosomes it contains a network of fine chromatic threads, which become visible as chromosomes when the cell prepares to divide the hereditary material called (DNA) De-oxy-ribonucleic acid is located on the chromosomes
DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus in chromosomes the information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people DNA is self-replicating, plays a central role in protein synthesis, and is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like and X-shaped objects found in the nucleus of most cells. They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene the gene is the unit of inheritance, and each chromosome may have several thousand genes. We inherit particular chromosomes through the egg of our mother and sperm of our father. The genes on those chromosomes carry the code that determines our physical characteristics, which are a combination of those of our two parents. In humans, animals, and plants, most chromosomes are arranged in pairs within the nucleus of a cell. Humans have 22 of these chromosome pairs, called autosomes. Humans have an additional pair of sex chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes
---: Cell division: ----
Every cell has definite limit of growth and when that limit is reached, it divides into all living cells as previously mentioned arise by division from pre existing cells. Cells reproduce and increase in number by division after growing to a certain maximum size, a cell may undergo the process of cell division. During a process the nucleus divides first, the nuclear division is called karyokinesis. While the cytoplasmic division is, called cytokinesis there are two main type of cell division found in living things.
01. Mitosis 02. Meiosis
01. Mitosis:
In this cell division process, a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in the parent cell this cell division is known as mitosis. Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided for convenience into four phases, which are
01. - Prophase
02. - Metaphase
03. - Anaphase
04. - Telophase
02. Meiosis:
In this cell division process, it is a special type of cell division in which a parent cell finally divides into four daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosome in each daughter cell reduce to half of their parent cell thus it is the reduction of the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes to the haploid (n) number. In the animals, meiosis produces gametes sperm and eggs while in plant it gives rise to spore. This division consists of the following phases.
01. Prophase -1
02. Metaphase -1
03. Anaphase -1
04. Telophase -1
What Is Organs?
Definition : The part of body that performs one or more specific function is called organ
An organ is a part of your body that performs a specific function, like your brain, lungs, or skin ,liver, kidney and heart are all organs of human body, in plant root, stem, and leaves are the organs these organs are formed by different tissues that perform different functions
---------:PLANTS TISSUE: -------
Q: What is a tissue? Define the Plant tissue.
A group of cells which are similar in structure and function is called tissue. Both plants and animals tissues have achieved increasing complexity by formation of organs and organ systems. In plants, there are two basic types of tissues, which are as follows.
01. Meristematic Tissues:
Plant tissues in which cells keep on dividing are called Meristematic tissue. So that the number of cells increases and the organism can grow. Meristematic cells are smaller with comparatively thin walls and a nucleus in the center this tissue is commonly present in root tips, shoot apex, and helps to increase the length of the root and the shoot by adding primary tissue.
02. Permanent Tissues:
Permanent tissue is formed from Meristematic cells this tissue is different from Meristematic tissue because its cells do not divide. The walls of these cells are thick enabling them to maintain their shape. The permanent tissue is of various types each type performs special function for example vascular tissue consisting of xylem and phloem transports water and food materials from one place to another. Xylem also provides support to the plant. Permanent tissue maybe classified into two groups.
a). Simple tissue
Simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a homogeneous mass.
b). Complex tissue:
Complex tissue made up of more than one type of cells working together as a unit.
01. Epidermal Tissue:
This is the outermost layer of cells that covers the roots, stems and leaves. Epidermal cells are tightly Packed, with no intercellular air spaces the main function of the epidermal cells is to protect the under lying tissue from injury these tissue protect the inner parts of plant.
02. Ground Tissues:
This tissue is meant for storing food but also prepare some food. This tissue is present in all parts of the plant except the epidermal and vascular tissues.
03. Supporting Tissues:
When cells reach a maximum size, their cell walls become thick due to deposition of special material and become dead such cells make up the supporting tissue
04. Vascular Tissue:
These tissues consist of elongated cells with thick or thin walls. Xylem and phloem are example of this tissue. The xylem conducts water and salts from the soil to the leaves, and provides support. The phloem conducts food from leaves to various parts of plants.
Q. What Is Animals Tissues? Define The Animals Tissues?
A group of cell, which is similar in structure and function, is called tissue.
Types of animal tissues01. Epithelial tissues:
Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the surface of the skin, line the various cavities and tubes of the body, and cover the internal organs mining
02. Connective Tissues:
The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a great amount of extra cellular material it consists of protein fibers embedded in protein or polysaccharide molecules. This tissue provides strength, support, and protection to the soft parts of the body. The animal body has two types of connective tissues soft and very hard tissues. Fatty tissues are example of the soft tissues and cartilage for example: the outer ear bone is special type of these tissues are hard tissues. Blood is also a special connective tissue it transports materials in the body.
03. Muscular Tissues:
This tissue formed of muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber is an elongated cell, which has the ability to contract and relax there, etc three kinds of muscle found in vertebrates:
Three kinds of muscle are found in vertebrates:
(a). Skeletal muscle :is made of long fibers whose contraction provides the force of locomotion and other voluntary body movements e.g. muscles of arm and legs which move these parts.
(b). Smooth muscle: lines the walls of the hollow structures of the body, such as the intestine, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the size of these hollow organs.
(c). Cardiac muscle. It is found in the heart
04. Nervous Tissues
This tissue is formed of the cells called neurons or nerve cell. Nerve cells are specialized to conduct massage in the form of electrical currents. The nervous system consists of this tissue.
Describe and short Note of unicellular Amoeba?
AMOEBA
Introduction
An Amoeba- proteus is a type of unicellular organism usually found in water ponds and rivers and on the surface of the leaves of water plants. It is microscopic in size measuring about 0. 25 mm to1 mm (Mili micron) across, it looks like a grayish blob under a microscope. Its shape is constantly changing as it moves along; the name amoeba comes from the Greek word amoibe, which meanschanging.
Supplement:Anatomy
01. Cell membrane
It is surrounded by a cell membrane.
02. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is very clear. It is differentiated into two parts. The outer portion, which is clear and transparent, is called ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part is calledendoplasm. The endoplasm contains many food vacuoles of different size in contractile vacuole and spherical nucleus. Organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are also present in the endoplasm.
03. Food vacuole:
In cytoplasm small and large size more food vacuole are filled with a watery fluid containing food. Amoebas eat Algae, bacteria, plant cells, and other microscopic protozoa.
04. contractile vacuole
The contractile vacuole is basically a water bubble within the endoplasm it’s function is to regulate the water content of the cell. It is also a means of excreting its waste from the cell (out through the cell membrane) via diffusion.
05. Nucleus:
Nucleus is usually present in the center but as the amoeba moves, the nucleus changes its position. Nucleus controls all the activities of amoeba body. If the nucleus is somehow removed from the cell the cell quickly dies. It is an essential part in the reproduction of cell.
06. Pseudopodia:
The animal moves by producing finger like projections called pseudopodia. The pseudopodia also used to capture food particles. Amoeba respires by exchanging gases with the surrounding water through its surface.
BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS (SARSOUN
Introduction and External structure
Brassica Campestris is botanical name of sarsoun. It is mustard plant and belongs is herb family. It is cultivated in the winter season and will be completed the start in the summer, Brassica plant in about 75-100 Cm height. The stem of Brassica plant is thin and the leaf grows from the node. The leaves of Brassica plant are big and cut off from the sides. There is swollen vein in the middle of leaf which is known as midrib. Brassica plants bear’s small yellowish flowers on the most important parts of the plant. Brassica leaves are used for the food purpose (vegetable purposes) seed contains the oil and it is useful for the food (nutrition) and medicines.
Supplement
System of Brassica
01. Shoot System: It contains stem and leaves which grows in the sunlight atmosphere.
02. Root System: It grows underground in the absence of sunlight, containing the part of roots of the plant. He observe underground water and food
Parts of Brassica
01. Vegetative Part
The vegetative parts are those, which do not directly take part in sexual reproduction. These parts are root, stem, branches and leaves.
02. Reproductive Part:
The reproductive parts consist of sex organs, which are directly related reproduction these are flowers, fruit and seed.
BRASSICA ROOT SYSTEM
The root system of Brassica is opposite to the sunlight under the soil this system absorbs the plant food (salt and water).it is divided into three parts respectively as under.
01. PRIMARY ROOT:
It grows from the radical of seed it is deep under the soil end of primary root bears the root cap which protects the end part of primary root. There are three part of primary root.
(a) Conducting region: It is collects the absorbed food or nutrition.
(b) Absorbing region: Bears the secondary root and root hair these absorb the food.
(c) Growing region: The root cap is bears at the end of this region this part of root goes deep in soil.
02. Secondary Root:
It is grows from primary root which is besides the plant which absorb the food materials.
03. Tertiary Root:
It grown from secondary roots and is fiber like roots. These roots absorb the food and send to the secondary root.
-----: INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT SYSTEM OF BRASSICA: --------
A cross section of Brassica root shows the outer part of a root called epidermis, which protects the root. Root hairs are outgrowths of epidermal tissue or cell next to epidermis is the cortex. Cortex is composed of parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells store food material. The root surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called endodermis next to the endodermis is a layer of cells called pericycle. Branch of root originate from the pericycle.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BRASSICA LEAF SYSTEM: -----------------:
A leaf grows out on the stem and its branches from the nodes generally the leaf of Brassica consist the lower stalk like part the petiole and upper green expanded portion is known as lamina. There is a swollen vein in the middle of the leaf, which is known as midrib the branch veins emerge and spread in the leaf like a net. These veins are actually vascular bundles consisting of xylem and phloem this network of vein supports the leaf and keeps its lamina in an expanded position. The function of the leaf is to prepare food therefore all of its tissues are arranged in such a way that photosynthesis can take place easily.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF
When transverse section of leaf is observed under the microscope, following structure are visible.
EpidermisThis layer of cells covers both upper and lower surfaces of leaf. Upper layer is called upper epidermis and lower layer is called lower epidermis. There is more number of stomata in lower epidermis than upper epidermis. This results in less transpiration and CO2 enters according to need. Each stomata consists of two guard cells, which are bean shaped, or kidney shaped. There is a pore between guard cells through which exchange of gases takes place and water vapors come out of leaves.
Mesophyll The tissue present between upper and lower epidermis is called mesophyll. It consists of two parts.
Palisade Mesophyll
Upper part consists of elongated cells which hare lying vertical. These are double layered closely packed cells and are called Palisade Mesophyll.
Spongy Mesophyll
The lower part is sponge like and has more intercellular spaces. This is called spongy mesophyll. Both types of cells have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. So, photosynthesis takes place here. The function of mesophyll is to manufacture food for the plant.
Vascular Tissue
It consists of midrib and veins. The midrib is bundle. Upper part of midrib is xylem and lower part is phloem. Pericycle and endodermis surround this bundle. Besides this Lamina has other bundle which are called veins.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM OF BRASSICA
When transverse section of stem of Brassica is observed under the microscope, following parts are visible.
a.Epidermisit is the outermost protective layer of stem. Outer to epidermis, there is layer of cut in which reduces loss of water from stem. The cells are compactly arranged and there are no intercellular spaces.
b. CortexIt is inner to epidermis. It is made up of many layers of parenchyma and collenchyma tissues. The main function of cortex is storage of water and food.
c. Endodermisit is innermost layer of cortex. It is not prominent in stem. It allows suitable quantity of water to enter cortex from xylem.
d. Pericycleit is in the form of bundles in between the endodermis and vascular bundles. It is composed of sclerenchyma cells. It forms bundle cap.
e. Vascular Bundles
In stem, vascular bundles are arranged in the form of ring. Vascular bundle consists of phloem and xylem. Phloem is towards outside and xylem is towards inside. Few layers of cambium are present between the xylem and phloem. Cambium causes increase in diameter of the stem with passage of time.
f. Medullary Rays
There are present few layers of thin walled living cells between every two layers. These are called medullary rays. The medullary rays connect the cortex with pith for the transport of food.
BRASSICA FLOWER SYSTEM
Brassica flower situated on a stalk known as pedicel, the tip of the pedicel bears thalamus the floral leaves are arranged in four whorls on thalamus. Brassica plant bears small, yellowish flowers. Flower are the most beautiful and important part of the plant.
Parts of flower
01. CALYX:
The calyx is the outermost whorl that protects the flower. The calyx generally contains flat structures that protect the flower when it is a bud or before it blooms. These structures are called sepals. In Brassica consists of four free sepals the most important function of the calyx is to cover the inner parts of the flower and to protect them from sunlight and rain.
02. COROLLA:
The second whorl directly inside the calyx is called the corolla and may be the most familiar part of the flower. The corolla composed of four free yellow petals. The most important function of the corolla is to help in pollination in the plant. The flower becomes very conspicuous that honeybees, butterflies and other insects are easily attracted and thus help in pollination.
03. ANDROECIUM:
The whorl that contains the male parts is called the androecium. The roots of this word will help you remember that it contains the male parts. The Greek word 'Andros' means 'man,' and the word'oikos' means 'house.
Supplement:
This is the third whorl of floral leaves. Its part is not leaf like. The androecium's consists of six free stamens, which are the male reproductive organs of the flower. Flower male organs stalk is known as filament and the upper swollen part called the anther. Each anther contains numerous pollen grains. When the anther matures longitudinal silt in its wall enables the pollen grain to escape. The pollen grain is transfer at in female organ in one flower to another flower.
04. GYNOECIUM:
The innermost whorl contains the female parts and is called the gynoecium. Again, let's look at the root words. The Greek word 'Gyno' means woman and we already know that 'oikos' means 'house.' So, the word 'gynoecium' means 'woman house.
Supplement:
This is fourth whorl of flower; the central position in the flower the part of female stalk is called style. The lower swollen part is called ovary. The style has swollen tip which is called stigma. In the ovary, many ovules are present, which ripen into seeds. The ovary ripens, and is converted into fruit. The fruit of Brassica is long dry capsule with many seeds. The seed can be easily dispersed by air currents.
--------------: FROG (RANA TIGRINA) HABITS: ----------------
Common living being is known is in sindhi language as Dedar, in Urdu as Mendak and it is called in English frog, but this animal in zoology is called Rana-Tigrina.
Classification of frog
Zoological name: -- Rana-tigrina
Phylum: --- Chordate
Sub-phylum:---- Vertebrata
Class: --- Amphibian
Genes: --- Rana
Species: ---- tigrina
The common frog of Pakistan and India lives in damp places near water. It crawls on land by means of both pairs of limbs, but usually jumping about with the strong posterior pair.
EXTERNAL FEATURES:
The body of the frog consists of the head a trunk and two pairs of limbs neck and tail being absent. A smooth slimy skin covers the whole body. Skin is olive colour and mottled with irregular black patches on the upper or dorsal surface. The head on the dorsal surface of anterior end of the snout are two small openings known as external nostrils .the external nostrils through which the frog draws air for respiration. A short distance behind the external nostril is two large prominent eyes and somewhat below each eye is a large dark-coloured area in the middle of which is a circular patch of thin skin this is the Eardrum or tympanic membrane of ear. Attached to the trunk are two pairs of limbs. A pair of fore limbs or arms and hind limbs or legs the fore limbs has four short tapering fingers in the male frog the first finger is thicker than others. The hind limbs five fingers in between the fingers there is a thin membranes known as web. Frog feeds insects, worms and other small animals, which it captures by suddenly shooting out its sticky tongue. Frog is found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay eggs. They hide during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and stay there throughout the winter this phenomenon is called hibernation
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF FROG:
Definition: The group of organs in a system which break down food and absorb the nutrients used by the body for fuel. Or energy is called digestive system
Supplement:
Part of Digestive system:
01. Buccal Cavity: -----
The huge slit like mouth lies between two semi circular jaws, of which the upper is immovable but the lower freely moveable in a vertical direction. The upper jaw bears small conical teeth called maxillary teeth in the middle of front part of the roof of the buccal cavity are two small groups of teeth called vomerine teeth. They are not meant for chewing the food but simply serve to prevent the prey from slipping out of the mouth the worn out teeth fall off and are continually replaced by new ones. Just behind the upper jaw near the anterior end of the roof of buccal cavity are two small opening called internal nostrils. The tongue is a large fleshy structure lying on the floor of the buccal cavity it is attached at its front end to the lower jaw. The surface of the tongue is covered with a sticky substance gland in Lower jaw in the male frog the slit-like openings of the vocal sacs are situated on the buccal cavity, beneath tongue; the female frog has no vocal sacs.
02. Pharynx: ----
The posterior narrow part of the buccal cavity called pharynx, which leads into a wide tube the oesophagus. The pharynx just behind the tip of the tongue is a slit like opening the glottis. The glottis opens into the lungs. When the food passes into the oesophagus the glottis, is closed and during respiration, it is open
03. Oesophagus and Stomach: -----
The pharynx leads into a short wide tube this is tube called oesophagus. The frog has no neck so this tube is very short. This lies in the anterior part of body cavity and open into the stomach. Therefore, the food goes to the stomach by this tube.
The stomach is a thick walled tabular sac or glandular sac like shaped. The wide front mouth of stomach called cardiac. The lower part of stomach is narrow mouth is called pyloric in which the food gathered temporary. Food grounded in stomach and mixed with an enzyme, gastric gland, HCL and pepsin, which partially digest proteins. The solved food is absorbed by stomach and the rest food, go to Duodenum.
04. Intestine: Duodenum (Small Intestine)
It is a zigzag structure it is long narrow coiled tube, wrapped in a curtain called mesentery. The partially digested food from the stomach enters the small intestine through pyloric end where its digestion in completed the digested food is absorbed in to the blood. Indigestible parts of food enter the large intestine also called rectum.
Rectum (Large Intestine)
The rectum is glandular sac like shaped rectum one side is jointed to urinary bladder and other side opens in urethra. The indigested parts of food enter the rectum, and are expelled out as faeces through the cloacal aperture.
05. Liver and Pancreas:
The liver is a large reddish-brown it make the secretion known as bile juice. Between the lobes of the liver is rounded pouch called Gall bladder, which store the bile juice. A bile duct arises from it on it way this duct passes through pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct. It opens in the duodenum. The pancreas makes the secretion called pancreatic juice. The bile juice and pancreatic juice help to complete the digestion of food in the small intestine
Respiratory System of Frog
There are three methods of respiration in frog.
01. Pulmonary Respiration:
A frog may also breathe much like a human, by taking air in through their nostrils and down into their lungs. The mechanism of taking air into the lungs is however slightly different than in humans. Frogs do not have ribs nor a diaphragm, which in humans helps serve in expand the chest and thereby decreasing the pressure in the lungs allowing outside air to flow in. In order to draw air into its mouth the frog lowers the floor of its mouth, which causes the throat to expand. Then the nostrils open allowing air to enter the enlarged mouth. The nostrils then close and the air in the mouth is forced into the lungs by contraction of the floor of the mouth. To eliminate the carbon dioxide in the lungs the floor of the mouth moves down, drawing the air out of the lungs and into the mouth. Finally the nostrils are opened and the floor of the mouth moved up pushing the air out of the nostrils.
02. Cutaneous Respiration:
Respiration through moist skin is called as cutaneous respiration. Skin is richly supplied with alone vessels and is permeable to gases. Oxygen gets dissolved in moist surface of skin them exchange of gases takes place by diffusion. It goes on all the time weather frog is in water or on land. It is only mode of respiration during hibernation or aestivation or when frog is under water.
03. Buccal Cavity Respiration
Respiration through the mucous membrane of the buccal cavity is known as buccal cavity respiration when the frog is at rest, the lungs are only intermittently filled, but the air is continually drawn into and driven out of the buccal cavity through the nares. During this period gaseous exchange takes place between the oxygen of the air in the Buccal cavity and carbon dissolved in the blood circulating through the capillaries of its roof
-----------Heart of frog-------------:
In the body cavity of the frog an automatic pumping organ system occur which is called heart. It is conical shaped located in the anterior region of body cavity. It is enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. The frog is three chambered namely
01. Right auricle
02. Left auricle and 03. Ventricle
Are true chambers and sinus venous and Truns arterious are not true called accessory chambers When the sinus-venosus contracts the deoxygenated blood, which received from the precaval and postcaval is forced through the sinuo-auricular opining into the right auricle, the presence of valves in the precaval and postcaval and steady onward flow of blood in them prevent the blood in the sinus venosus from being forced back into these veins. Meanwhile the left auricle is filled with the oxygenated or aerated blood brought by the pulmonary vein from lungs and drives the blood through the auriculo-ventricular opining into the ventricle the ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right auricle and oxygenated blood from the left auricle. The ventricle contracts immediately after the auricle as it does so the auriculo-ventricular valve meeting together closes the opining and thus prevents the reflex of blood into the auricles. When ventricle is contracted the blood flows into latter chamber from truncus-arterious. It is divided in right and left three arteries.
01. Carotid arch: Carotid arch is divided into external and internal carotid artery; it supplies oxygenated blood to brain, eyes, nose, ear and other close organs.
02. Systemic arch: supplies blood to from various parts of body. In addition,
03. Pulmo-cutaneous: deoxygenated blood supply to lungs and skin of frog.
: -----------Arterial System of frog ------------:
Definition: Blood vessels, which carry oxygenated blood away from heart to different part of the body, are called arteries. They constitute a system called Arterial system.
Supplement:
The arterial system in frog beings with truncus arteriosus which divides into left and right branches or trunks, each of which subdivides into three major vessels or aortic arches
01. Carotid arch
It is divides into two branches: external and internal carotids.
a) External carotid: It is the smaller inner branch lying superficially that carries blood to the tongue, lower jaw.
b) Internal carotid: It supplies blood to the brain, orbit, roof of buccal cavity and skull.
02. Systemic arch
It is the longest of the three arches and with greatest distribution of blood. The two systemic archer curve dorsally around the oesophagus and join with each other behind the heart to form the dorsal aorta. In its course each systemic arch gives off three arteries.
a). Sub-clavein artery: It is a large artery supplying blood to shoulder region and arm of forelimb.
b) coeliac-mesenteric artery: It is a single large artery arising from the junction of the two systemic arches. It has two main branches i.e. coeliac artery that supplies blood to stomach, pancreas and liver; and the anterior mesenteric artery that supplies blood to the spleen and intestine.
c) Gonad artery: A pair of short arteries to gonads called spermatic artery in male frog and ovarian artery in female frog supplies blood to testis and ovary respectively..
d) Renal artery: On passing into the two kidneys, dorsal aorta gives out 5-6 pairs of small renal arteries in a series into both the kidneys.
e) Common iliac artery: The dorsal aorta finally bifurcates (divide into two branches) poster artery into two common iliac, they are supplying a femoral artery to hip and upper thigh, andsciatic artery to lower portion of hind limbs
03. Pulmo-cutaneous arch
It divides into main two arteries i.e. pulmonary artery to the lung and cutaneous artery to skin of dorsal and lateral sides.
-------------Venous system of frog -----------------
Definition: The blood vessels which bring the blood from different body parts, back into the heart are called veins. The system containing of veins is called venous system.
Supplement:
The union of three veins forms the sinus venous by three large veins, the right and left Pre-caval vein in front and the post-caval behind pre-caval.
01. External jugular: The jugular carried away the deoxygenated blood from the eye, ear nose, tongue and the close organs,
02. Innominate : Innominate from brain and sub-clavian
03. Subclavian : carries from fore limbs and then enters sinus-venosus.
The post cavil is divided in left and right hepatic vein, it receives blood from liver. The hepatic portal arises from liver divided larger and small veins it carried away the digestive system for example stomach, small and large intestine and spleen etc. When the post cavil is large median vein lying ventral to the dorsal aorta posterior it is formed by five or six pairs of renal vein, from the kidney, and the genital vein from the reproductive organs. The veins are drawn from besides the two kidney these veins are called renal portal. The renal portal is divided into two veins, and a vein is drown from the liver called abdominal vein which is divided into two veins and it combine with renal portal and makes two pairs one is called sciatic vein and second is called femoral vein. They carry away the deoxygenated blood from hind limb and abdomen and supply the blood to kidney and direct to liver.
Portal system of the frog
01. Hepatic portal system:
The blood vessels (veins) bringing blood from various organs of digestive system (stomach, duodenum, Ilium, rectum, pancreas and spleen etc) combine to form a large vein. This is known as hepatic portal vein. Near the liver a branch of abdominal vein combines with it. Then it enters the liver and divides and re-divides to form capillaries. The, blood entering the liver through hepatic portal veins goes to the post caval by means of hepatic veins. The blood from post caval goes to heart through sinus venosus.
The blood coming back into the heart is of two types.
a) Oxygenated blood which comes from lungs by pulmonary veins
b) Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body enters sinus venosus through pre-caval and post caval and then enters the right atrium.
02. Renal portal system:
The veins which carry alone to a capillary system in kidneys constitute the renal portal system. Blood of each hind leg is collected by two veins, an outer femoral vein and an inner sciatic vein. On entering the abdominal cavity the femoral divides into a dorsal renal portal and ventral pelvic vein. The Renal portal unites with the sciatic vein of its side and while running along there outer border of kidney of its side it receives alone from lumbar region by a dorso-lumbar vein. Renal postal vein enters the kidney by several branches which break up in to capillaries.
Renal Portal Vein
The veins which bring blood from the hind limbs and pelvic region combine to form renal portal vein. The renal portal vein enters the kidney of its side and form capillaries. Blood from kidney goes to the post caval through renal veins. Post caval caries the blood to the heart.
Male Reproductive System of frog
Definition: The process of production of new babies by their parents is called Reproduction.
Supplement:
The reproductive system of male frog consists of a pair of testes and reproductive ducts. Each testis is attached to kidney by means of a membrane. At anterior end of testis, there is present fat body. Each testis is composed of small ducts called seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced. Sperms enter the kidney via vasa efferentia. Sperms reach the cloaca through ureter. From here, these are discharged in the water through cloacal aperture in this way, ureter in male frog does two jobs, one is removal of urine and other is removal of sexual material, so it is called urinogenital duct and the urinary system and genital system are collectively call urinogenital system.
Female Reproductive System of frog
Definition: The process of production of new babies by their parents is called Reproduction.
Supplement:
The reproductive system of female frog consists of a pair of ovaries and reproductive ducts. Ovaries are present close to the kidneys. At their anterior ends, there are present fat bodies. Each ovary contains many follicles in which eggs (ova) are produced. During breeding season, ovaries are enlarged. Ova are released into the body cavity through the coelomic fluid, these enter the oviduct. The anterior part of oviduct is funnel like called oviducal funnel and reach the uterus. The uterus opens into the cloaca. At last, ova are discharge in the water through cloacal aperture. In water, union of sperm with egg results in formation of zygote. From zygotes, offspring are formed and in this way continuity of race is ensured.
Definition of blood Vessels
Artery
The tube, which carry the oxygenated blood away for the heart to the various parts of body as known as artery they are thin than the vein.
All Arteries supply oxygenated blood to various parts of body but only one artery pulmonary carries deoxygenated blood it supply blood to lungs.
Vein
The tubes, which return blood to the heart from the various parts of body, is called vein. All veins return deoxygenated blood of body. But only one vein pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood. Pulmonary veins go is to lungs and it supplies oxygenated blood from heart.
Capillaries
These are fiber like tube exchange material between tissue and blood are called capillaries
Excretory system of frog
Definition: The process, act or function of discharging or ejecting waste product from the body is known as Excretion.
Supplement:
This function is performed by kidney, which filter out the excretory matter from the blood and pass it out in the form of urine. The urine is carried from the kidney by a pair of tubes called ureters which open into the cloaca from the cloaca it passed out directly through cloacal aperture.
Ear of Frog
The organ of hearing in frog is "Ear" like other vertebrates.
Structure of Ear of Frog
The ear of frog consists of following three parts.
01. Outer Ear
External ear consists of a bone. The vibration is produced in external ear when sound waves strike with it.
02. Middle Ear
Middle Ear consists of a tympanic membrane. On the inner side of the membrane is a cavity known as tympanic cavity. The cavity contains small rod like bones called ossicles. The middle ear is connected to internal ear by a tube which is called Eustachian tube; it transfers the vibrations towards the internal ear.
03. Inner Ear
The internal ear is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semi circular canals. These canals are filled with membraneth of labyrinth fluid and sensory cells are located at special places in these canals.
Function of Ear of Frog
When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane, it is set into vibration, this is in turn vibrates the internal ear and thus sound waves stimulate the hearing receptors in the inner ear. The internal ear, in addition to hearing also keeps the balance of the body.
Eye of frog (organs of sight)
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head if we make a vertical section of eye we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the sensory retina. The retina contains photoreceptor cells the outside retina is the choroids, which is richly supplied with blood capillaries are supplying nutrients to the retina. The anterior transparent part of eye is called cornea behind the cornea is Iris. The Iris has a window called pupil; behind the pupil is the lens of the eye. The cornea and lens focus light on the retina. A jelly like fluid is present between the lens and retina through which light passes before it strikes retina Optic nerve take the sensory massages from the eye to brain
Nervous system of frog
Definition : The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is called nerves system.
The nervous system is composed of two parts
01. Central nerves system
02. Peripheral nerves system
01. Central Nervous System
The central nerves system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Brain of Frog
Brain is enclosed in protective layers and is located in cranium or brain case, which is major part of skull.
Brain is divided into three parts:
(a) Fore Brain: This is anterior part of brain. This is associated with sense of smell. It controls the secretion of many hormones. It also receives messages from internal and external environment of the body.
(b) Mid Brain: This is central part of brain. This is associated with eyes and vision.
(c) Hind Brain: This is the posterior part of brain. It controls and coordinates body movements and maintains balance of the body. It also controls respiration, circulation, taste and digestion.
Spinal Cord
The posterior part of the brain is continuous with spinal cord. It runs through the vertebral column. The spinal cord controls the movements of trunk region.
02. Peripheral Nervous System of Frog
The peripheral nerves system comprise nerves which connect the nervous system with various parts of the body i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs. These nerves connect the central nervous system with various parts of the body. Some nerves originate from brain. These are called cranial nerves other nerves originate from spinal cord. These are called spinal nerves. In frog, there are 10 pairs of cranial nerves and 9 or 10 pairs of spinal nerves. Basically, nerves are of three types:
Sensory Nerves: These take messages from sensory organs to central nerves system.
Motor Nerves: These take messages from central nerves system to glands and muscles.
Mixed Nerves: These do both above mentioned functions
Cranial Nerves: In these nerves, first, second and eight pairs are sensory nerves which are associated with senses of smell, sight and hearing. Third, fourth and sixth pairs are motor nerves which carry message from brain to the eye. Nine and ten pairs are mixed nerves, which are supplied to jaw, face, tongue and heart.
Spinal Nerves: These are all mixed nerves. These control functions of different organs.
DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus the information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people DNA is self-replicating, plays a central role in protein synthesis, and is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like and X-shaped objects found in the nucleus of most cells. They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene the gene is the unit of inheritance, and each chromosome may have several thousand genes. We inherit particular chromosomes through the egg of our mother and sperm of our father. The genes on those chromosomes carry the code that determines our physical characteristics, which are a combination of those of our two parents.
In humans, animals, and plants, most chromosomes are arranged in pairs within the nucleus of a cell. Humans have 22 of these chromosome pairs, called autosomes. Humans have an additional pair of sex chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes
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Chapter -03
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Chapter -04
Virus Bacteria and Cyano-bacteriaWhat are Micro-Organisms? Many living organisms such as plants, animals and human are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, other living organisms are so small that we need a powerful microspore to see them these are called micro organism For example: bacteria, virus amoeba and euglena etc Micro-organisms As a Heterogeneous Group Micro-organisms are a heterogeneous group. It includes different kinds of organism viruses, bacteria, Cyano-bacteria, protozoa, certain algae and some fungi. On the basis of structure they range from sub-cellular to cellular for example, viruses are sub-cellular and all other micro-organisms are cellular. Bacteria, and Cyano-bacteria are prokaryotes (without nucleus) where as algae, fungi and protozoa are eukaryotes (with nucleus). On the basis of mode of nutrition algae are autotrophic while fungi and protozoa are heterotrophic. Therefore, micro-organisms differ in their structure and mode of characteristics of viruses, they are studied in a separate group where as bacteria and Cyano-bacteria, being prokaryotes, are included in kingdom Monera. Virus (short note) Introduction of virus By 1800's many biologist had demonstrated that many diseases of man and other organisms were caused by bacteria, some diseases puzzled them. One such disease was tobacco mosaic disease occurring in tobacco plant leaves. In 1892 biologist Iwanowsky named them virus. The word virus means poison they are so small that they cannot be seen with the light microscope they can be studied only under the electronic microscope Size of Virus Virus is of different sizes they range in size from 20 nm to 250 nm. There is no sexual or asexual reproduction. They reproduce by replication Shape of Virus, Viruses are of different shapes some are rounded, few are rod shaped, few polyhedral while some viruses look like tadpoles Structure of Virus Viruses have same biochemical nature. In spite of their different shapes, they are made up of only two parts, an outer “coat”, and an inner “core”. The core is made up of DNA or RNA (never both) and the coat is made of protein. The outer protein coat determines the shape of viruses e.g. in bacteriophage (virus that lives in bacteria) protein coat consists of two parts, head and tail. DNA is present in the head region but the tail has only protein. Most of the animal viruses contain DNA whereas plant viruses have RNA core bacteriophage is also called phage virus Virus "Life" Cycles Viruses are non living, and have DNA and a capsid (outer coat of protein). All viruses are pathogens. They enter the body through transmission, and can only duplicate themselves using the organism's host cells. Virus is living or non living? Although viruses have both living and nonliving characteristics, Viruses are not considered "in between living and non living" living characteristics: they can replicate and has DNA or RNA. They are specific to the cells they attack. They can mutate. Non-living characteristics: need cells to reproduce for them. They don't breath, or eat or drink. They don't have nervous system, which means they don't have conscious awareness of their surroundings. Biggest proof of viruses not being living thing is reproduction. They are not living so they need "living cells “to do it for them. Viral Diseases in Plants Ring spot in different plants, yellow in sugar beet and mosaic disease in tobacco, potato, tomato, bean and cabbage are the various diseases of plants, caused by viruses. Viral Diseases in Animals Mouth and foot disease in cattle and cowpox in horses, buffalo and cows are caused by viruses. Viral Diseases in Humans In human beings, viruses produce common cold, influenza, small pox, yellow fever, polio, infectious hepatitis, cancer and AIDS. Ways of Viral Transmission Bacteria (short note) Introduction Bacteria were the only form of life on earth for 2 billion years. They were first observed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century Bacteria are tiny little organisms that are everywhere around us. We can't see them without a microscope because they are so small, but they are in the air, on our skin, in our bodies, in the ground, and all throughout nature. . Size of Bacteria Bacteria (singular: bacterium) range from 1um to 10um in length and from 0.2um to 1um in width and can be observed under light microscope. Structure of Bacteria Capsule - Some species of bacteria have a third protective covering, a capsule made up of polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Cell Envelope - The cell envelope is made up of two to three layers: the interior cytoplasmic membrane, the cell wall, and -- in some species of bacteria -- an outer capsule Cell Wall - Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a protein-sugar (polysaccharide) molecule. The wall gives the cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the functions for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, Flagella - Flagella are hair like structures that provide a means of locomotion for those bacteria that have them Nucleoid - The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located. It is not a membrane bound nucleus, but simply an area of the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA are found Ribosome - Ribosomes are microscopic "factories" found in all cells, including bacteria. Types of Bacteria On the basis of shape and form, bacteria are of four types. These are as follow: Bacteria occur both singly and in colonies. Cocci bacteria are found in groups of two or four, or in irregular groups and even in the form of long beads. Baccilli are found singly or may join end to end to form long threads. But Spirilla and Vibrios occur singly. Importance of bacteria Useful bacteria Beneficial Bacteria Bacteria synthesize cellulose enzyme in the stomach of herbivore animals which helps in the digestion of food. Some bacteria also synthesize vitamin "B" and "K" in the large intestine of man and other mammals. Recently the use of bacteria in bio-insecticides has become popular Harmful Bacteria Nutrition in bacteria 1. Saprophytic system: They get their food from dead organic matter. The soil is full of organic compounds in the form of humans. Bacteria living in the soil in the soil have large number of enzymes that break down the complex substance of human to simpler compounds. These bacteria absorb ad utilize these simple compound as a source of energy. Many other saprophytic bacteria cause decay of dead animals and plants material as they convert complex organic compound to simpler ones. 2. Symbiotic bacteria: They are found associated with other living organisms they obtain food from the host without harming it, e.g. nitrogen bacteria in the roots of leguminous plants. 3. Parasitic bacteria: They grow inside the tissues of other living organisms and obtain food at the expense of host these bacteria lack certain complex system of enzymes. 4.Autotrophic bacteria: They can synthesize organic compounds from simple inorganic substance. Autotrophic bacteria may be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic. 5.Photosynthetic bacteria: They have pigment very similar to the chlorophyll and named as bacteria chlorophyll. These pigments are bounded by invigilated plasma membrane in the cytoplasm and not in the chloroplast they carry out photosynthesis 6. Chemosynthetic bacteria: They obtain their energy from oxidation of some inorganic substance. Like iron, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulpher. Respiration in Bacteria Another aspect of metabolism which can be used in the classification of bacteria is their need for oxygen in respiration. a) Aerobes. Require oxygen for respiration b) Anaerobes : respire without oxygen c) Some bacteria are killed in the presence of oxygen, they are called obligate anaerobes .other use oxygen but can respire without it, and they are called facultative anaerobes. Bacteria which can only survive with oxygen present are obligate aerobes. Cyano-bacteria (blue green algae) Structure of Nostoc: A common example of Cyano-bacteria, which has filamentous structure, which is found in the form a ball, is called Nostoc. The structure of Nostoc is filamentous. The filaments are interring mixed in gelatinous mass forming a ball like structure. It floats on water. A single filament looks like a chain of beads. Each filament is un-branched and has a row of rounded or oval cell. Each cell has double-layered wall the outer thicker layer is made-up of cellulose mixed up with pectin. The inner thin layer is made-up purely of cellulose. There is total absence of endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi bodies and vacuole. However ribosome, pseudo-vacuole and reserve food are present.
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Chapter -05
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